Category: Arousal

Body Language of Twitching

Body Language of Twitching

No picCue: Twitching.

Synonym(s): Flinching, Nervous Twitch.

Description: A sudden short burst of movement.

In One Sentence: Twitching signals nervousness or is simply a response to an underlying neurological condition.

How To Use it: Twitching is not well received by others as it indicates one is not able to properly control one’s body. Therefore, where possible, one should avoid or suppress the signal.

Context: General.

Verbal Translation: a) “I’m twitching because I have an underlying neurological condition.” b) “I’m suddenly twitching because something has triggered a stress response.”

Variant: See Jerky Movements.

Cue In Action: a) He habitually twitched and jerked his legs and arms – it was normal for him and most learned to just ignore it. b) When she suggested that he shovel the driveway, his arm twitched. It was a sign that he wasn’t interested in clearing it again for the third time that day.

Meaning and/or Motivation: Sometimes referred as a nervous twitch, a sudden short burst of movement or flinch can be due to a variety of reasons.

Twitching can be due to sudden or sustained stress, but more often than not, it is due to a random firing of neurons, or underlying medial disease and therefore has no meaning at all.

When it is due to stress, it is likely person specific meaning they have a tendency to twitch when under stress. When twitching happens suddenly, it can refer back to a trigger due to stress and is therefore laden with meaning and significance.

Often, when twitching occurs regularly, it is a signal that it is simply idiosyncratic and has no meaning at all. Therefore, a body language reader must establish an underlying baseline before reading twitching for meaning.

Cue Cluster: Twitching is a relatively difficult cue to read unless it’s been established as a baseline indicator. Look for other cues to indicate stress such as excessive perspiration, touching the face or neck, scratching, pulling at the ears, smoothing out clothing and so forth.

Body Language Category: Arousal, Autonomic signal, Idiosyncratic body language, Leaked or involuntary body language, Microgestures, Nervous body language, Stressful body language.

Resources:

Azrin, N.H. ; Nunn, R.G. Habit-reversal: A method of eliminating nervous habits and tics. Behaviour Research and Therapy. 1973. 11(4): 619-628.

Bracha, H. S. (2004). Freeze, flight, fight, fright, faint: Adaptionist perspectives on the acute stress response spectrum. CNS Spectrums, 9, 679–685.

Cannon, W. B. (1929). Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear and rage (2nd ed.). New York: Appleton, Century, Crofts.

Cath, Danielle C ; Spinhoven, Philip ; Hoogduin, Cees A.L ; Landman, Andrea D ; van Woerkom, Theo C.A.M ; van de Wetering, Ben J.M ; Roos, Raymund A.C ; Rooijmans, Harry G.M. Repetitive behaviors in Tourette’s syndrome and OCD with and without tics: what are the differences? Psychiatry Research. 2001. 101(2): 171-185.

Diniz, Juliana B. ; Rosario-Campos, Maria Conceição ; Hounie, Ana Gabriela ; Curi, Mariana ; Shavitt, Roseli Gedanke ; Lopes, Antonio Carlos ; Miguel, Euripedes C. Chronic tics and Tourette syndrome in patients with obsessive–compulsive disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research. 2006. 40(6): 487-493.

Dale, Russell C. Post-streptococcal autoimmune disorders of the central nervous system. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology. 2005. 47(11): 785-791.

Everly, Jr., G. S. & Lating, J. M. (2002). A clinical guide to the treatment of the human stress response (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers

Joubert, C E. Relationship of self-esteem, manifest anxiety, and obsessive-compulsiveness to personal habits. Psychological reports. 1993. 73(2): 579-83.

Huflejt-Łukasik M, Czarnota-Bojarska J (2006) Short Communication: Selffocused attention and self-monitoring influence on health and coping with stress. Stress Health 22: 153–59.

Katza, Carmit; Irit Hershkowitz; Lindsay C. Malloya; Michael E. Lamba; Armita Atabakia and Sabine Spindlera. Non-Verbal Behavior of Children Who Disclose or do not Disclose Child Abuse in Investigative Interviews. Child Abuse & Neglect. 2012. 36: 12-20.
http://bodylanguageproject.com/articles/reading-nonverbal-behaviour-child-abuse-cases-encourage-children-divulge-information-truth-telling

Varley, C K ; Vincent, J ; Varley, P ; Calderon, R Emergence of tics in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder treated with stimulant medications. Comprehensive psychiatry. 2001. 42(3): 228-33.

Body Language of Sweating or Hyperhidrosis

Body Language of Sweating or Hyperhidrosis

No picCue: Sweating or Hyperhidrosis.

Synonym(s): Hyperhidrosis, Perspiration.

Description: The release of water from the body onto the skin through specialized glands located in the skin.

In One Sentence: Sweating is a universal signal of stress or of the body’s attempt to regulate a high temperature.

How To Use it: Sweating is not generally regarded as a positive cue – though it can be reflective of positive action and accepted, such as when exercising. In business and other general situations where exercise is not taking place, sweating is seen as a highly off-putting signal. In these cases, it should be carefully controlled through antiperspirants. In extreme cases, where a medical condition is experienced, one may consider treatment to eliminate sweat at its source.

In a dating context, sweating has been likened to a primitive animal condition and so it can, at times, create a positive impression. Late night infomercials and even photoshoots characterize the sweaty condition in both men and women to create arousal. In this condition, it shows a ‘hot and heavy’ disposition and likened to the passion and heat created through sex. A light glow on the skin and face with a water spray bottle or, in overt cases, baby oil, can make the skin glisten and shin and therefore create more sex appeal. When this is coupled with erotic body movements, it can produce additional moisture in more erogenous locations. Men and women can both use the allure of a glistening body to arouse.

Context: General.

Verbal Translation: a) “I’m emotional and my body is releasing sweat due to the increase in stress.” b) “I’m suffering from a medical condition which forces my body to sweat independent of context or stress” c) “I’m lying which is causing my body to increase it’s metabolism resulting in a higher body temperature inducing sweating.” d) “I’m hot, so my body is producing sweat to cool me off.”

Variant: N/A.

Cue In Action: a) It was just about time to present and she was nervous. Her palms, armpits and lower back began to perspire profusely. b) He would sweat regardless of the outside temperature or his activity levels. His doctor diagnosed him with a condition known as hyperhidrosis c) The polygraph measured his skin conductivity which helped the specialist read him for honesty or lack thereof. d) The hockey player was drenched in sweat after playing an intense game.

Meaning and/or Motivation: Sweating is a limbic response due to high stress or anxiety. It usually occurs in the armpits, lower back, hands and often the forehead.

Humans sweat in response to external temperature increases but also due to emotional stress. In the case of emotional sweating, it is mostly restricted to the palms, soles of the feet and forehead. However, when we become emotionally aroused our metabolic rate revs-up and we burn more calories. This creates not just local sweating, but sweating throughout the body.

When people are under high social pressure they can be seen sweating voraciously under the armpits and down their backs. It can get so bad that it leaves visible stains.

An Indicator of light perspiration from stress includes scratching. As sweat builds, it causes clothing to chaff. It also produces a tingling sensation. This causes discomfort and forces people to deal with it. This produces more frequent scratching of the neck and palms.

While some experts purport that sweating can indicate lying, it’s actually a signal of frustration and heightened emotion in response to pressure, and that this pressure can stem from anything, not just lying. In fact, being “put on the spot” is often enough to create the conditions where sweating will take place. Sweating is an excellent cue indicating anxiety.

Sometimes the hands simply sweat continuously and uncontrollably from a medical condition called hyperhidrosis, which affects about five percent of the population.

Cue Cluster: To determine the meaning of sweating watch for associated cues. When someone sweats independent of outside cues you should assume it’s due to a medical condition. During a presentation, the context warrants a conclusion of emotional stress and discomfort. If there is a sudden change coupled with discomfort body language such as touching the neck, scratching the palms, shifting the torso away, pointing the toes away, eye avoidance, and so forth, one could rightfully assume that a person is suffering emotionally.

Body Language Category: Amplifier, Arousal, Autonomic signal, Emotional body language, Fearful body language, Nervous body language, Stressful body language.

Resources:

Allen, J.A., Armstrong, J.E. and Roddie, I.C. The regional distribution of emotional
sweating in man. J. Physiol. 235, 749–759 (1973).

Altman, R.S. and Schwartz, R.A. Emotionally induced hyperhidrosis. Cutis 69, 336–338
(2002).

Chalmers, T.M. and Keele, C.A. The nervous and chemical control of sweating. Br. J. Dermatol. 64, 43–54 (1952).

Drummond PD, Lance JW (1987) Facial flushing and sweating mediated by the sympathetic nervous system. Brain 110 (Pt 3): 793–803.

Eisenach, J.H., Atkinson, J.L. and Fealey, R.D. Hyperhidrosis: evolving therapies for a well-established phenomenon. Mayo Clin. Proc. 80, 657–666 (2005).

Early, Charles E. ; Kleinknecht, Ronald A. Maher, Brendan A. (editor). The Palmar Sweat Index as a function of repression–sensitization and fear of dentistry. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1978. 46(1): 184-185.

Gregson, Kim D ; Tu, Kelly M ; Erath, Stephen A. Sweating under pressure: skin conductance level reactivity moderates the association between peer victimization and externalizing behavior. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines. 2014 55(1): 22-30.

Gross, Katharina M ; Schote, Andrea B ; Schneider, Katja Kerstin ; Schulz, André. Elevated social stress levels and depressive symptoms in primary hyperhidrosis
Meyer, Jobst. PloS one. 2014 9(3): e92412

Harrison, J. The behaviour of the palmar sweat glands in stress Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 1964. 8(3): 187-191.

Köhler, Thomas ; Troester, Ulrich. Changes in the palmar sweat index during mental arithmetic. Biological Psychology. 1991. 32(2): 143-154.

Köhler, Thomas ; Schuschel, Irena. Changes in the number of active sweat glands (palmar sweat index, PSI) during a distressing film. Biological Psychology. 1994. 37(2):.133-145.

Krogstad, A. L. ; Mork, C. ; Piechnik, S. K. Daily pattern of sweating and response to stress and exercise in patients with palmar hyperhidrosis. British Journal of Dermatology. 2006. 154(6): 1118-1122.

Machado-Moreira, C.A. and Taylor, N.A. Psychological sweating from glabrous and
nonglabrous skin surfaces under thermoneutral conditions. Psychophysiology 49, 369–374 (2012).

Machado-Moreira, C.A. and Taylor, N.A. Sudomotor responses from glabrous and non-glabrous skin during cognitive and painful stimulations following passive heating. Acta Physiol. (Oxf) 204, 571–581 (2012).

MacKinnon, P.C.B. Hormonal control of the reaction of the palmar sweat index to emotional stress. Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 1964. 8(3): 193-195.

Navarro, Joe. 2008. What Every BODY is Saying: An Ex-FBI Agent’s Guide to Speed-Reading People. William Morrow Paperbacks.

Ogawa T (1975) Thermal influence on palmar sweating and mental influence on generalized sweating in man. Jpn. J. Physiol. 25(4): 525–536.

Ruchinskas RA, Narayan RK, Meagher RJ, Furukawa S (2002) The relationship of psychopathology and hyperhidrosis. Br. J. Dermatol. 147(4): 733–735.

Ruchinskas R (2007) Hyperhidrosis and anxiety: chicken or egg? Dermatology (Basel) 214(3): 195–196.

Schmidt-rose, T. ; Lehmbeck, F. ; Bürger, A. ; Windisch, B. ; Keyhani, R. ; Max, H. Efficient sweat reduction of three different antiperspirant application forms during stress-induced sweating. International Journal of Cosmetic Science. 2013 35(6): 622-631.

Sato, K. The physiology, pharmacology and biochemistry of the eccrine sweat gland. Rev. Physiol. Biochem. Pharmacol. 79, 51–131 (1977).

Wilke K, Martin A, Terstegen L, Biel SS (2007) A short history of sweat gland biology. Int J Cosmet Sci 29(3): 169–179.

Wilson, Thad E. Sweating the details: what really drives eccrine output during exercise-heat stress.(Report). Journal of Physiology. 2013. 591: 2777(1)

Body Language of Surprised Facial Expression

Body Language of Surprised Facial Expression

BodyLanguageProjectCom - Surprised Facial Expression 2Cue: Surprised Facial Expression.

Synonym(s): N/A

Description: The eyebrows curve upwards, wrinkles form in the forehead and the whites of the eyes become visible through eye widening. The jaw becomes slack and opens.

In One Sentence: The surprised facial expression is one of the six main universal facial expressions.

How To Use it: Use the surprised facial expression to show others that they have taken you by surprise. This may be in a shared joke, to show your amazement for their accomplishments or other good or novel news. Facial expressions are a way that we can bond with other people either in positive or negative ways. Suiting our expression with our underlying attitude or conversely feigning an attitude can help create desired relationships and outcomes.

Context: General.

Verbal Translation: “I’m surprised so my face is shooting open and everything is widening.”

Variant: See Anger Facial Expression, Happiness and Joy, Sadness Facial Expression, Fearful Facial Expression, Disgust Facial Expression.

Cue In Action: The prank team set up shop in a street garbage pail while the camera was hidden around the corner. As the man sprung up, the action was captured on film. Faces shot open, mouth agape, eyebrows up – surprise!

Meaning and/or Motivation: Surprise is one of the six main facial expressions that are found throughout the world. They are happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, anger and disgust.

Each expression involves three independent parts of the face, the forehead and eyebrows, the eyes, eyelids and upper part of the nose called the “root” and the lower part of the face including the lower part of the nose, cheeks, chin and mouth.

Surprise is motivated by a fear response. Surprise implies that one is not expecting something to occur. Thus, the body and limbic system reach overdrive to open the face up to prepare it for action.

Cue Cluster: Arms usually shoot up or out, an audible squeal, scream, or “ahhh”, or gasp, is heard and the person might jump, step back, duck and head cover. Sometimes the head drops as does the jaw especially if coupled with disbelief.

Body Language Category: Arousal, Automatic gesture, Emotional body language, Excited body language, Inborn behaviours, Leaked or involuntary body language, Surprised body language, Universal facial expressions.

Resources:

Bard, K. A. (2003). Development of emotional expressions in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). In P. Ekman, J. Campos, R. J. Davidson & F. B. M. De Waal (Eds.), Emotions inside out: 130 years after Darwin’s The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (Vol. 1000, pp. 88-90). New York: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173-1882.

Biehl, M., Matsumoto, D., Ekman, P., Hearn, V., Heider, K., Kudoh, T., et al. (1997). Matsumoto and Ekman’s Japanese and Caucasian Facial Expressions of Emotion (JACFEE): Reliability Data and Cross-National Differences. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 21, 3-21.

Carroll E. 1994. Innate and universal facial expressions: Evidence from developmental and cross-cultural research Izard, Psychological Bulletin. 115(2): 288-299.

Daniel H. Lee, Reza Mirza, John G. Flanagan and Adam K. Anderson. Optical Origins of Opposing Facial Expression Actions. Psychological Science published online 24 January 2014 DOI: 10.1177/0956797613514451
http://bodylanguageproject.com/articles/eyes-and-facial-expressions-may-be-biologically-controlled-serve-a-real-non-emotional-purpose-says-research/

de Waal, F. B. M. (2003). Darwin’s legacy and the study of primate visual communication. In P. Ekman, J. Campos, R. J. Davidson & F. B. M. De Waal (Eds.), Emotions inside out: 130 years after Darwin’s The Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals (pp. 7-31). New York: New York Academy of Sciences.

Duan, Xujun ; Dai, Qian ; Gong, Qiyong ; Chen, Huafu. Neural mechanism of unconscious perception of surprised facial expression. NeuroImage. 2010. 52(1): 401-407.

e Charlesworth, W. R. (1964). Instigation and maintenance of curiosity behavior as a function of surprise versus novel and familiar stimuli. Child Development, 35, 1169–1186.

Ekman, Paul. 1994. Strong evidence for universals in facial expressions: A reply to Russell’s mistaken critique Psychological Bulletin. 115(2): 268-287.

Ekman, Paul. 1986. A new pan-cultural facial expression of emotion. Source: Motivation and Emotion Ekman. 10(2): 159-168.

Ekman, Paul and Friesen, W. V. 1987. Universals and cultural differences in the judgments of facial expressions of emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 53(4): 712-717.

Ekman, Paul; Friesen, Wallace V. 1971. Constants across cultures in the face and emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 17(2): 124-129.

Ekman, Paul. 1972. Universals and cultural differences in facial expressions of emotion. In J. Cole (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 1971. 19: 207-282. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

Ekman, P., Levenson, R. W., & Friesen, W. V. (1983). Autonomic nervous system activity distinguishes among emotions. Science, 221(4616), 1208-1210.

Ekman, P., O’Sullivan, M., & Matsumoto, D. (1991a). Confusions about context in the judgment of facial expression: A reply to “The contempt expression and the relativity thesis.”. Motivation & Emotion, 15(2), 169-176.

Ekman, P., O’Sullivan, M., & Matsumoto, D. (1991b). Contradictions in the study of contempt: What’s it all about? Reply to Russell. Motivation & Emotion, 15(4), 293-296.

Elfenbein, H. A., & Ambady, N. (2002). On the universality and cultural specificity of emotion recognition: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 128(2), 205-235.

Ekman, P. & O’Sullivan, M. (1991). Who can catch a liar? American Psychologist. 46, 913-920.

Fulcher, J. S. “Voluntary” facial expression in blind and seeing children. Archives of Psychology, 1942. 38: 272.

Friesen, W. V. 1972. Cultural differences in facial expressions in a social situation: An experimental test of the concept of display rules. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, San Francisco.

James A. Russell, Naoto Suzuki and Noriko Ishida. 1993. Canadian, Greek, and Japanese freely produced emotion labels for facial expressions. Motivation and Emotion. 17(4): 337 -351

Russell, James A. 1995. Facial Expressions of Emotion: What Lies Beyond Minimal Universality? Psychological bulletin. 118(3): 379-391.

Russell, James A. 1994. Is There Universal Recognition of Emotion From Facial Expression? A Review of the Cross-Cultural Studies. Psychological Bulletin. 115(1): 102-141.

Susskind, Joshua M and Adam K Anderson. Facial Expression Form and Function. Communicative Integrative Biology. 2008. 1(2): 148–149. PMCID: PMC2686004
http://bodylanguageproject.com/articles/emotional-facial-expressions-evolve/

Levenson, R. W., Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1990). Voluntary facial action generates emotion-specific autonomic nervous system activity. Psychophysiology, 27(4), 363-384.

Levenson, R. W., Ekman, P., Heider, K., & Friesen, W. V. (1992). Emotion and autonomic nervous system activity in the Minangkabau of West Sumatra. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 62(6), 972-988.

Ludden, G. D. S., Schifferstein, H. N. J., & Hekkert, P. (2009). Visual–tactual incongruities in products as sources of surprise. Empirical Studies of the Arts, 27, 63–89.

Matsumoto, D. (1989). Cultural influences on the perception of emotion. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 20(1), 92-105.

Matsumoto, D. (1992). American-Japanese cultural differences in the recognition of universal facial expressions. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 23(1), 72-84.

Matsumoto, D. (2001). Culture and Emotion. In D. Matsumoto (Ed.), The Handbook of Culture and Psychology (pp. 171-194). New York: Oxford University Press.

Matsumoto, D., & Ekman, P. (1989). American-Japanese cultural differences in intensity ratings of facial expressions of emotion. Motivation & Emotion, 13(2), 143-157.

Matsumoto, D., Keltner, D., Shiota, M. N., Frank, M. G., & O’Sullivan, M. (2008). What’s in a face? Facial expressions as signals of discrete emotions. In M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland & L. Feldman Barrett (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 211-234). New York: Guilford Press.

Matsumoto, D., & Willingham, B. (2009). Spontaneous Facial Expressions of Emotion of Congenitally and Non-Congenitally Blind Individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(1), 1-10.

Mesquita, B., & Frijda, N. H. (1992). Cultural variations in emotions: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 197-204.

McClure, Erin B 2000. A meta-analytic review of sex differences in facial expression processing and their development in infants, children, and adolescents
Psychological Bulletin. 126(3): 424-453.

Mead, M. 1975. Review of “Darwin and facial expression.” Journal of Communication, 25: 209-213.

Peleg, G., Katzir, G., Peleg, O., Kamara, M., Brodsky, L., Hel-Or, H., et al. (2006). Heriditary family signature of facial expression. Proceedings from the National Academy of Sciences, 103(43), 15921-15926.

Reisenzein, R. (2000). Exploring the strength of association between the components of emotion syndromes: the case of surprise. Cognition and Emotion, 14, 1–38.

Parzuchowski, Michal ; Szymkow-Sudziarska, Aleksandra. Well, slap my thigh: expression of surprise facilitates memory of surprising material. Emotion. 2008. 8(3): 430-4.

Reisenzein, R., Bördgen, S., Holtbernd, T., & Matz, D. (2006). Evidence for strong dissociation between emotion and facial displays: the case of surprise. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 295–315.

Reisenzein, R., & Studtmann, M. (2007). On the expression and experience of surprise: no evidence for facial feedback, but evidence for a reverse self-inference effect. Emotion, 7, 612–627.

Scherer, K. R., Zentner, M. R., & Stern, D. (2004). Beyond surprise: the puzzle of infants’ expressive reactions to expectancy violation. Emotion, 4, 389–402.

Schützwohl, Achim ; Reisenzein, Rainer. Facial expressions in response to a highly surprising event exceeding the field of vision: a test of Darwin’s theory of surprise. Evolution and Human Behavior. 2012. 33(6): 657-664.

Vrticka, Pascal ; Lordier, Lara ; Bediou, Benoît ; Sander, David Desteno, David (editor). Human Amygdala Response to Dynamic Facial Expressions of Positive and Negative Surprise. Emotion. 2014. 14(1): 161-169.

Vanhamme, J. (2000). The link between surprise and satisfaction: an exploratory research on how to best measure surprise. Journal of Marketing Management, 16, 565–582.

Body Language of Speech Hesitation

Body Language of Speech Hesitation

No picCue: Speech Hesitation.

Synonym(s): Stuttering, Silent Pauses, Filled Pauses, Delayed Responses.

Description: During speech hesitation a person will usually use filler words such as “hmms” and “ahhs” or “like” that do not offer any use besides filling gaps in speech. Other times, no words are uttered, but there is a noticeable gap in dialogue that is often awkward.

In One Sentence: Speech hesitation is a sign of nervousness.

How To Use it: Speech hesitation, aside from purposefully pausing during a speech does not have a positive application. Its use should therefore be avoided.

Context: General.

Verbal Translation: a) “I’m stuttering because I have a speech related pathology. I don’t have any issue at all, but my speech hesitation makes me look nervous and awkward.” b) “I’m hesitating in my speech because I’m carefully selecting my words as I fabricate a lie.” c) “I’m nervous and awkward and I can’t think straight which is causing me to lose my words and cloud my thinking.” d) “I’m pausing because I don’t really know what I’m talking about and I need to buy myself some time to think.”

Variant: N/A.

Cue In Action: a) Bill has always stuttered and should really consult with a speech pathologist to get some help – people really think he has low self-confidence. b) Bill was caught in a lie, but rather than trip on his words, he began to “umm” and “aww” – it was clear that he was fabricating a lie. c) Bill was put on the spot and didn’t know what to say. He wasn’t lying, he just felt awkward retelling his story in front of everyone. d) During the oral exam, Bill slowed noticeably when he reached the questions about the essay – it was clear he hadn’t studied for that element.

Meaning and/or Motivation: Speech hesitation is read by others as a lack of self-confidence because it makes the speaker appear to be at a loss for words. It is also often correlated to lying although it only truly makes its appearance under extreme situations. Only when lies get very complicated do we see effects such as stuttering, pauses, speech errors or corrections. At times, speech hesitation is due to stuttering and is a medical and speech related pathology.

Other times speech hesitation is actually due to nervousness that causes a person to lose the ability to think clearly and coherently. We can verify this cue by establishing a baseline. That is, if a person suddenly begins to stutter or show speech hesitation we can rightly attribute it to the context and conclude that new emotions have arisen causing the person to lose their ability to speak smoothly. Pauses can also sometimes indicate that a person doesn’t really know what they are talking about or that they are taking their time to carefully select their words.

Although the cue itself might outline nervousness or lack of confidence in some cases, it’s actually a poor indicator in and of itself. Rather, it is the stigma surrounding speech pauses that creates a negative impression instead of it being an indicator in and of itself. In other words, if one stutters, one is perceived by others to have low confidence. This is what makes the awareness of the speech pauses much more important if we wish to appear confident and competent in front of others.

Cue Cluster: To have a true meaning as a negative cue indicating nervousness or awkwardness, we should look for other cues in cluster. These include higher pitch, faster and louder speech, speech errors, blushing of the face, neck or ears, an increase in blink rate, fidgeting, dilation of the pupils or sweating, fidgeting, appearing unfriendly or tense, facial fidgeting, shaking, postural shifts or uncomfortable/reserved postures, twitches, shrugs, head movements, playing with objects, sneering, scowling, frowning, smiling, biting the lower lip, pressing the lips together, wrinkling of the nose, increase in perspiration, blushing or turning pale, and increases in swallowing.

Body Language Category: Amplifier, Arousal, Audible signals, Fearful body language, Low confidence body language, Lying or deceptive body language, Negative body language, Nervous body language, Regulators, Stressful body language.

Resources:

Alm, Per A.. Stuttering, Emotions, and Heart Rate during Anticipatory Anxiety: A Critical Review. Journal of Fluency Disorders. 2004. 29(2): 123-133.

Ardila, Alfredo ; Bateman, JoséRicardo ; Niño, Carmen Rosa ; Pulido, Elizabeth ; Rivera, Dora Beatriz ; Vanegas, Claudia Janeth. An epidemiologic study of stuttering. Journal of Communication Disorders. 1994. 27(1): 37-48.

Alibali, M.W., Heath, D.C., and Myers,H.J. (2001). Effects of visibility between speaker and listener on gesture production: Some gestures are meant to be seen. Journal of Memory and Language, 44, 169–188.

Butler, Clare. Identity and stammering: negotiating hesitation, side‐stepping repetition, and sometimes avoiding deviation. Sociology of Health & Illness. 2013. 35(7): 1113-1127.

Collard, Philip ; Corley, Martin ; Macgregor, Lucy J. ; Donaldson, David I. Attention Orienting Effects of Hesitations in Speech: Evidence from ERPs. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 2008. 34(3): 696-702.

Friedman, Ernest H. Speech hesitation pauses as a measure of neuronal activity. Archives of internal medicine. 2002. 162(19): 2251.

Guntupalli, Vijaya K. ; Kalinowski, Joseph ; Saltuklaroglu, Tim. The need for self-report data in the assessment of stuttering therapy efficacy: repetitions and prolongations of speech. The stuttering syndrome. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders. 2006. 41(1): 1-18.

Howell, Richardw. ; Vetter, Haroldj. Hesitation in the Production of Speech. The Journal of General Psychology. 1969. 81(2): 261-276.

Koppensteiner, Markus ; Grammer, Karl. Body movements of male and female speakers and their influence on perceptions of personality. Personality and Individual Differences. 2011. 51(6): 743-747.

Lukashevich, I. P. ; Machinskaya, R. I. ; Shklovskii, V. M. ; Venikova, G. P. ; Danilov, A. V. ; Ziborova, E. V. ; Fridman, T. V. Features of Autonomic Regulation and the Character of Convulsions in Stammering Children. Human Physiology. 2004. 30(4): 418(3).

Logan, Kenneth J. ; Mullins, Melody Saunders ; Jones, Kelly M. The Depiction of Stuttering in Contemporary Juvenile Fiction: Implications for Clinical Practice. Psychology in the Schools. 2008. 45(7): 609-626.

Resnick, Heidi S. ; Oltmanns, Thomas F. Buchwald, Alexander M. (editor). Hesitation patterns in the speech of thought-disordered schizophrenic and manic patients. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1984. 93(1): 80-86.

Silverman, Ellen-Marie. Speech—Language clinicians’ and university students’ impressions of women and girls who stutter. Journal of Fluency Disorders. 1982. 7(4): 469-478.

St. Louis, Kenneth O. Male versus female attitudes toward stuttering. Journal of Communication Disorders. 2012. 45(3): 246-253.

Sturman, Edward D. Invluntary Subordination and Its Relation to Personality, Mood,
and Submissive Behavior. Psychological Assessment. 2011. 23(1): 262-276 DOI: 10.1037/a0021499
http://bodylanguageproject.com/articles/nonverbal-submission-men-women-depression-critical-examination-use-disuse-submission/

Cue: Shallow Breathing

Body Language of Shallow Breathing

No picCue: Shallow Breathing

Synonym(s): Hyperventilating, Shallow Breathing, Panting.

Description: An unusually high and quick rate of respiration.

In One Sentence: Shallow breathing indicates a high level of physical or emotional arousal.

How To Use it: Use shallow breathing to prepare for the flight or fight response. It will help oxygenate the blood in preparation for battle. Hyperventilating is an emergency response signal and if perceived by others will offer medical assistance and emotional support. If this sort of sympathy is desired, then shallow breathing can help garner that sort of attention. Use the signal with care so as not to appear overly dramatic or emotionally unstable.

Context: a) Dating, b) General.

Verbal Translation: “I’m getting so excited I need to consume more and more oxygen in order to get the job done.” “

Variant: See Deep Breathing.

Cue In Action: a) She panted with excitement as their lips met – her lust was obvious b) He was left alone in the woods and didn’t know where he was. The more he moved, the more he panicked. He nearly hyperventilated from fear.

Meaning and/or Motivation: a) When sexually aroused, women (usually) will breath with an excited pace as if hyperventilating. This is thought to function as a way to take in more of the aroma of her partner. b) During a state of elation, panic or fear, people will often take frequent, but shallower breaths.

Cue Cluster: a) Various other sexual cues such as increased proximity, eye contact, removing clothing to be more comfortable, preening, and so forth. b) The winning sports team will often be seen with their arms extended, their heads thrown back and their mouths and eyes opened wide in a state of ecstasy.

Body Language Category: Arousal, Autonomic signal, Courtship display, Indicators of sexual interest (IOsI), Nervous body language, Physiological signals, Physiological signals, Stressful body language, Worry body language.

Resources:

Allen, Ben ; Friedman, Bruce H. Positive emotion reduces dyspnea during slow paced breathing. Psychophysiology. 2012 49(5): 690-696.

Brown, Richard P ; Gerbarg, Patricia L. Sudarshan Kriya yogic breathing in the treatment of stress, anxiety, and depression: part I-neurophysiologic model. Journal of alternative and complementary medicine . 2005. 11(1): 189-201.

Bracha, H. S. (2004). Freeze, flight, fight, fright, faint: Adaptionist perspectives on the acute stress response spectrum. CNS Spectrums, 9, 679–685.

Boiten, Frans A. The effects of emotional behaviour on components of the respiratory cycle. Biological Psychology. 1998. 49(1): 29-51.

Cannon, W. B. (1929). Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear and rage (2nd ed.). New York: Appleton, Century, Crofts.

Estes, Zachary Estes and Michelle Verges. Freeze or flee? Negative stimuli elicit selective responding. Cognition. 2008. 108(2): 557-565.

Everly, Jr., G. S. & Lating, J. M. (2002). A clinical guide to the treatment of the human stress response (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers

Ekerholt, Kirsten Bergland. Breathing: a sign of life and a unique area for reflection and action. Astrid Physical therapy. 2008 88(7): 832-40.

Geronemus, Hillary. Breathe Through It. Women’s Health. 2010. 7(3): 068

Hunter, Virginia. Clinical clues in the breathing behaviors of patient and therapist. Clinical Social Work Journal. Summer. 1993 21(2):161-118

Sand-Jecklin, Kari. Patient Anxiety Levels Related to Gynecologic Examinations: Use of the Color Breathwork Relaxation Method. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing. 2008. 22(4): 240-242.

Schmidt, N. B., & Joiner, T., Jr. (2002). Structure of the anxiety sensitivity index: Psychometrics and factor structure in a community sample. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 16, 33–49.

Schmidt, N. B., Miller, J., Lerew, D. R., Woolaway-Bickel, K., & Fitzpatrick, K. (2002). Imaginal provocation of panic in patients with panic disorder. Behavior Therapy, 33, 149–162.

Schmidt, Norman B. ; Richey, J. Anthony ; Zvolensky, Michael J. ; Maner, Jon K. Exploring human freeze responses to a threat stressor. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry. 2008. 39(3): 292-304.

Tainsky, Al. Calm, cool, collected: a meditation primer. Inside MS, Wntr. 2002. 20(1): 24(4).

Zvolensky, M. J., & Eifert, G. H. (2001). A review of psychological factors/processes affecting anxious responding during voluntary hyperventilation and inhalations of carbon dioxide-enriched air. Clinical Psychology Review, 21, 375–400.

Body Language of Sex Flush

Body Language of Sex Flush

No picCue: Sex Flush.

Synonym(s): Sex Blush.

Description: A measles-like rash appearing on the breast and chest usually in women (and sometime men) nearing orgasm.

In One Sentence: The sex flush is a nonverbal signal that says an orgasm is near.

How To Use it: Women can use reddening to appear artificially sexually aroused by applying make-up to the cheeks and even the upper chest. This is an artificial likening to sexual arousal which men will find alluring. Otherwise, the cue is not something that can be consciously controlled making it not something that is readily used as a voluntary nonverbal cue.

Context: Dating.

Verbal Translation: “I’m having an orgasm and the flow of blood is increasing to my skin.”

Variant: Blushing.

Cue In Action: Her heart was racing as she panted heavily; she arched her back forced her legs together and went into an erotic tremble. Her skin turned bright pink, glistening, and she couldn’t catch her breath.

Meaning and/or Motivation: The sex flush is found in nearly seventy-five percent of women and twenty-five percent of men and does not occur at any other time and is not a direct reaction to temperature, but tends not to occur in colder climates.

The sex flush, or vasocongestion is an increase of blood flood throughout the skin. In women, the skin turns pinkish under the breast, which spreads to the torso, face, hands and feet. In some cases, the entire body might flush. In men, the skin turns pink in the abdomen, then chest, neck, face, forehead, and occasionally the shoulders and forearms. The sex flush typically subsides quickly after orgasm but can last up to two or more hours and result in increased perspiration.

Cue Cluster: During orgasm breathing often becomes heavy, muscular contractions of the pelvic area including the vagina, uterus and anus, the feet may curl, the legs press together.

Body Language Category: Arousal, Autonomic signal, Physiological signals.

Resources:

Bögels, Susan M. ; Alberts, Maurice ; de Jong, Peter J.. Self-consciousness, self-focused attention, blushing propensity and fear of blushing. Personality and Individual Differences. 1996. 21(4): 573-581.

Beidel, D. C., Turner, S. M., & Dancu, C. V. (1985). Physiological, cognitive and behavioral aspects of social anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 23, 109–117.

Byrne, Donn Erwin.; Byrne, Lois A. Exploring human sexuality. 1977. New York. Crowell.

Chaker, S., Hofmann, S. G., & Hoyer, J. (2010). Can a one-weekend group therapy reduce fear of blushing? Results of an open trial. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 23(3), 303–318.

Dijk, C., Voncken, M. J., & de Jong, P. J. (2009). I blush, therefore I will be judged negatively: influence of false blush feedback on anticipated others’ judgments and facial coloration in high and low blushing-fearfuls. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47(7), 541–547.

Drummond, P. D. (1994). The effect of anger and pleasure on facial blood flow. Australian Journal of Psychology, 46, 95–99.

Drummond, P. D. (1999). Facial flushing during provocation in women. Psychophysiology, 36(3), 325–332.

Drummond, P. D. (2001). The effect of true and false feedback on blushing in women. Personality and Individual Differences, 30(8), 1329–1343.

Drummond, P. D., & Lance, J. W. (1987). Facial flushing and sweating mediated by the sympathetic nervous system. Brain, 110(Pt. 3), 793–803.

Drummond, P. D., & Quah, S. H. (2001). The effect of expressing anger on cardiovascular reactivity and facial blood flow in Chinese and Caucasians. Psychophysiology, 38, 190–196.

Drummond, Peterd. ; Su, Daphne. The relationship between blushing propensity, social anxiety and facial blood flow during embarrassment. Cognition & Emotion. 2012. 26(3): 561-567.

Drummond, Peter D. and Lazaroo, Daniel. The effect of facial blood flow on ratings of blushing and negative affect during an embarrassing task: Preliminary findings. Journal of Anxiety Disorders. 2012. 26(2): 305-310.

Drummond, Peter D. ; Back, Kate ; Harrison, Jennifer ; Dogg Helgadottir, Fjola ; Lange, Brooke ; Lee, Chris ; Leavy, Kate ; Novatscou, Caroline ; Orner, Azalia ; Pham, Han ; Prance, Jacquie ; Radford, Danielle ; Wheatley, Lauren. Blushing during social interactions in people with a fear of blushing. Behaviour Research and Therapy. 2007. 45(7): 1601-1608.

de Jong, Peter J. ; Peters, Madelon L. Do blushing phobics overestimate the undesirable communicative effects of their blushing? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 2005. 43(6): 747-758.

Dijk, Corine ; De Jong, Peter J. Blushing-fearful individuals overestimate the costs and probability of their blushing. Behaviour research and therapy. 2012. 50(2): 158-62.

Henson, Claudia ; Rubin, H. ; Henson, Donald. Women’s sexual arousal concurrently assessed by three genital measures. Archives of Sexual Behavior. 1979. 8(6): 459-469.

Heiman, J R ; Rowland, D L ; Hatch, J P ; Gladue, B A. Psychophysiological and endocrine responses to sexual arousal in women. Archives of sexual behavior. 1991. 20(2): 171-86.

Licht, Peter B. ; Pilegaard, Hans K. ; Ladegaard, Lars. Sympathicotomy for Isolated Facial Blushing: A Randomized Clinical Trial. The Annals of Thoracic Surgery. 2012. 94(2): 401-405.

Pelissolo, Antoine ; Moukheiber, Albert ; Lobjoie, Corine ; Valla, Jean ; Lambrey, Simon. Is there a place for fear of blushing in social anxiety spectrum? Depression and Anxiety. 2012. 29(1): 62-70.

Prause, Nicole ; Barela, James ; Roberts, Verena ; Graham, Cynthia. Instructions to Rate Genital Vasocongestion Increases Genital and Self-Reported Sexual Arousal but not Coherence Between Genital and Self‐Reported Sexual Arousal. The Journal of Sexual Medicine. 2013. 10(9): 2219-2231.

Sidi, Hatta ; Naing, Lin ; Midin, Marhani ; Nik Jaafar, Nik Ruzyanei. The Female Sexual Response Cycle: Do Malaysian Women Conform to the Circular Model? The Journal of Sexual Medicine. 2008. 5(10): 2359-2366.

Smidfelt, K. ; Drott, C.. Late results of endoscopic thoracic sympathectomy for hyperhidrosis and facial blushing. British Journal of Surgery. 2011. 98(12): 1719-1724

Shearn, D., Bergman, E., Hill, K., Abel, A., & Hinds, L. (1990). Facial coloration and temperature responses in blushing. Psychophysiology, 27(6), 687–693.

Traish, Abdulmaged M. ; Botchevar, Ella ; Kim, Noel N. Biochemical Factors Modulating Female Genital Sexual Arousal Physiology. The Journal of Sexual Medicine. 2010. 7(9): 2925-2946.

Vern L. Bullough. Science In The Bedroom: A History Of Sex Research Paperback. 1995.

Body Language of Scratching

Body Language of Scratching

BodyLanguageProjectCom - Scratching 1Cue: Scratching.

Synonym(s): Itching.

Description: The fingers are flexed and turned into a claw shape with the nails pointing to the skin. They move in a back and forth motion over a specific area in effort to provide comfort.

In One Sentence: Scratching can be due to negative emotions, or due to an actual itch, and therefore, have no meaning at all.

How To Use it: Scratching is not a cue that is beneficial in using necessarily, however, it can help resolve some of the discomfort due to negative thoughts. Scratching serves as a distraction to negative emotions and can help alleviate the sensation caused by stress. When scratching is done vigorously or, conversely, gently, it may reduce stress by releasing painkilling hormones or comforting hormones respectively. When stress due to lying or otherwise, is the cause of scratching, one should be careful to make it appear that one is simply using scratching to reduce normal skin discomfort. This will avoid being perceived in a negative light.

Context: General.

Verbal Translation: a) “I’m nervous and stressed causing an increase in blood flow and sweating. I can comfort through scratching as a distraction to the underlying cause.” B) “Conversely, I’m scratching to alleviate a legitimate itch which has no emotional meaning at all.”

Variant: See Neck Scratching or Neck Massaging, Ear Grab, Hand Behind Head or Head Pacifying, Hand To Nose, Neck Rubbing (back of neck) or Holding The Back Of The Neck.

Cue In Action: The pressure was really getting to him, but he tried to remain calm. His palms began to perspire and his forehead began to bead with sweat. As the heat increased, his shirt chaffed against his skin. He scratched at his torso and pawed at his face. His partners knew he wouldn’t make the deadline.

Meaning and/or Motivation: Scratching the neck is a stress related behaviour aimed at pacifying because it diverts attention away from the true source of pain. Scratching when no itch is present is a way to displace some of the nervous energy created by the situation.

As blood flow increases to various parts of our body it stimulates nerves that in turn cause irritation and discomfort. It is the tingling sensation due to an increase in blood flow that gives clues to the underlying meaning. Thus, scratching can be due to high stress or anxiety.

In proper context itching indicates uncertainty and a lack of knowledge such as when being asked a question. The scratching behaviour is a pain inducer that causes painkilling hormones to be released to create relaxation in the face of emotional discomfort.

Scratching often has no meaning at all. In normal circumstances it is used to reduce discomfort as a result of tight or dry skin, clothing that causes tickling, or chafing and so forth. It is the motivation, method, and context that will help the body language reader decide its underlying meaning or lack thereof.

Cue Cluster: Coupled with stress scratching we might find pulling at the sleeves, blushing or flushing of the face, perspiration, touching or scratching of the face and cheeks, front and back of the neck and ear, eyebrows of grief combined with other close facial expressions such as lip pursing, squinted eyes and grimacing.

Body Language Category: Adaptors, Amplifier, Arousal, Auto contact or self touching, Comfort body language, Stroking body language, Frustration or frustrated body language, Hostile body language, Idiosyncratic body language, Low confidence body language, Lying or deceptive body language, Nervous body, Pacifying body language, Stressful body language.

Resources:

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Barroso, Felix ; Feld, Jason. Self-touching and attentional processes: The role of task difficulty, selection stage, and sex differences. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior. 1986. 10(1): 51-64.

Butzen, Nathan David ; Bissonnette, Victor ; Mcbrayer, Dan. Effects of modeling and topic stimulus on self-referent touching. Perceptual and motor skills. 2005. 101(2): 413-20.

Bouhuys, A.L. ; Jansen, C.J. ; van den Hoofdakker, R.H. Analysis of observed behaviors displayed by depressed patients during a clinical interview: relationships between behavioral factors and clinical concepts of activation. Journal of Affective Disorders. 1991. 21(2): 79-88.

Bond, Michael H., and Hiroshi Komai (1976). “Targets of Gazing and Eye Contact During Interviews: Effects on Japanese Nonverbal Behavior.” In Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (Vol. 34), pp. 1276-84.

Blakeslee, Sandra (1995). “In Brain’s Early Growth, Timetable Maybe Crucial.” In New York Times (“Science Times,” August 29), pp. C1, C3.

Castles, Duncan L. ; Whiten, Andrew ; Aureli, Filippo. Social anxiety, relationships and self-directed behaviour among wild female olive baboons. Animal Behaviour. 1999. 58(6): 1207-1215.

Croyle, Kristin L. ; Waltz, Jennifer. Subclinical Self-Harm: Range of Behaviors, Extent, and Associated Characteristics. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 2007. 77(2): 332-342.

Everly, Jr., G. S. & Lating, J. M. (2002). A clinical guide to the treatment of the human stress response (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers

Ekman, Paul, and Wallace V. Friesen (1969). “Nonverbal Leakage and Clues to Deception.” In Psychiatry (Vol. 32), pp. 88-106.

Gregersen, Tammy S. Nonverbal Cues: Clues to the Detection of Foreign Language Anxiety. Foreign Language Annals. 2005. 38(3): 388-400
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Goldberg, Shelly ; Rosenthal, Robert. Self-touching behavior in the job interview: Antecedents and consequences. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior. 1986. 10(1): 65-80.

Goodall, Jane (1986). The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University).

Givens, David B. (1976). An Ethological Approach to the Study of Human Nonverbal Communication (University of Washington Ph.D. dissertation in Anthropology, Ann Arbor: University Microfilms).

Grand, Stanley (1977). “On Hand Movements During Speech: Studies of the Role of Self-Stimulation in Communication Under Conditions of Psychopathology, Sensory Deficit, and Bilingualism.” In Norbert Freedman and Stanley Grand, eds., Communicative Structures and Psychic Structures: A Psycholanalytic Interpretation of Communication (New York: Plenum Press), pp. 199-221.

Harrison, Lynda Law. The use of comforting touch and massage to reduce stress for preterm infants in the neonatal intensive care unit. Newborn and Infant Nursing Reviews. 2001. 1(4): 235-241.

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Body Language of Sadness Facial Expression

Body Language of Sadness Facial Expression

No picCue: Sadness Facial Expression.

Synonym(s): Grief.

Description: A raise of the inner eyelids into an inverted “V” accompanied by a lift of the lower eyelids. Often accompanied by lines across the forehead with the mouth pulled downward and a droop in the eyelids.

In One Sentence: The sadness facial expression is a demonstration of emotional grief.

How To Use it: Use the sadness expression to gain sympathy from others. Children use it best, as do women. Men can also elicit caring through sadness, but must display it to a compassionate audience which is not as readily available to them. When women use it, men and women will most certainly react, whereas for men, men and women will take great care not to overstep social boundaries and add extra insult to a man’s painful emotional condition.

If one wishes to appear dominant and in control, then displaying sadness should be used only in very narrow situations such as the loss of a loved one. In this case, the sadness is outbound and displays not a loss for the self, but compassion for others. This is usually read as a more permissible use of sadness. Using sadness to improve treatment is perceived as a selfish use of the condition and attributed to those whom are physically and emotionally weak.

Context: General.

Verbal Translation: “I’m sad. Muscles in my face are contracting resulting in a face that is contorted proving my emotional turmoil.”

Variant: See Hang-Dog Expression, Eyebrows Knit or Oblique Eyebrows Of Grief.

Cue In Action: He learned that a close family member had passed away after a long struggle with cancer. His expression told of his grief.

Meaning and/or Motivation: Sadness is one of the six universal facial expressions (sadness, anger, disgust, surprise and fear). Sadness is a deep pain and emotional discomfort that comes from hearing or experiencing negative stimuli.

Cue Cluster: Sadness also sees an overall depletion of energy, enthusiasm, limp body, shoulders slumped, as well as trembling, lips quivering, moist eyes or crying.

Body Language Category: Arousal, Automatic gesture, Closed facial gestures, Dislike (nonverbal), Emotional body language, Universal facial expressions.

Resources:

Bard, K. A. (2003). Development of emotional expressions in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). In P. Ekman, J. Campos, R. J. Davidson & F. B. M. De Waal (Eds.), Emotions inside out: 130 years after Darwin’s The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (Vol. 1000, pp. 88-90). New York: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173-1882.

Biehl, M., Matsumoto, D., Ekman, P., Hearn, V., Heider, K., Kudoh, T., et al. (1997). Matsumoto and Ekman’s Japanese and Caucasian Facial Expressions of Emotion (JACFEE): Reliability Data and Cross-National Differences. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 21, 3-21.

Carroll E. 1994. Innate and universal facial expressions: Evidence from developmental and cross-cultural research Izard, Psychological Bulletin. 115(2): 288-299.

Daniel H. Lee, Reza Mirza, John G. Flanagan and Adam K. Anderson. Optical Origins of Opposing Facial Expression Actions. Psychological Science published online 24 January 2014 DOI: 10.1177/0956797613514451
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de Waal, F. B. M. (2003). Darwin’s legacy and the study of primate visual communication. In P. Ekman, J. Campos, R. J. Davidson & F. B. M. De Waal (Eds.), Emotions inside out: 130 years after Darwin’s The Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals (pp. 7-31). New York: New York Academy of Sciences.

Ekman, Paul. 1994. Strong evidence for universals in facial expressions: A reply to Russell’s mistaken critique Psychological Bulletin. 115(2): 268-287.

Ekman, Paul. 1986. A new pan-cultural facial expression of emotion. Source: Motivation and Emotion Ekman. 10(2): 159-168.

Ekman, Paul and Friesen, W. V. 1987. Universals and cultural differences in the judgments of facial expressions of emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 53(4): 712-717.

Ekman, Paul; Friesen, Wallace V. 1971. Constants across cultures in the face and emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 17(2): 124-129.

Ekman, Paul. 1972. Universals and cultural differences in facial expressions of emotion. In J. Cole (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 1971. 19: 207-282. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

Ekman, P., Friesen, W. V., O’Sullivan, M., Chan, A., Diacoyanni-Tarlatzis, I., Heider, K., et al. (1987). Universals and cultural differences in the judgments of facial expressions of emotion. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 53(4), 712-717.

Ekman, P., Levenson, R. W., & Friesen, W. V. (1983). Autonomic nervous system activity distinguishes among emotions. Science, 221(4616), 1208-1210.

Ekman, P., O’Sullivan, M., & Matsumoto, D. (1991a). Confusions about context in the judgment of facial expression: A reply to “The contempt expression and the relativity thesis.”. Motivation & Emotion, 15(2), 169-176.

Ekman, P., O’Sullivan, M., & Matsumoto, D. (1991b). Contradictions in the study of contempt: What’s it all about? Reply to Russell. Motivation & Emotion, 15(4), 293-296.

Elfenbein, H. A., & Ambady, N. (2002). On the universality and cultural specificity of emotion recognition: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 128(2), 205-235.

Fulcher, J. S. “Voluntary” facial expression in blind and seeing children. Archives of Psychology, 1942. 38: 272.

Friesen, W. V. 1972. Cultural differences in facial expressions in a social situation: An experimental test of the concept of display rules. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, San Francisco.

James A. Russell, Naoto Suzuki and Noriko Ishida. 1993. Canadian, Greek, and Japanese freely produced emotion labels for facial expressions. Motivation and Emotion. 17(4): 337 -351

Levenson, R. W., Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1990). Voluntary facial action generates emotion-specific autonomic nervous system activity. Psychophysiology, 27(4), 363-384.

Levenson, R. W., Ekman, P., Heider, K., & Friesen, W. V. (1992). Emotion and autonomic nervous system activity in the Minangkabau of West Sumatra. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 62(6), 972-988.
Matsumoto, D. (1989). Cultural influences on the perception of emotion. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 20(1), 92-105.

Matsumoto, D. (1992). American-Japanese cultural differences in the recognition of universal facial expressions. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 23(1), 72-84.

Matsumoto, D. (2001). Culture and Emotion. In D. Matsumoto (Ed.), The Handbook of Culture and Psychology (pp. 171-194). New York: Oxford University Press.

Matsumoto, D., & Ekman, P. (1989). American-Japanese cultural differences in intensity ratings of facial expressions of emotion. Motivation & Emotion, 13(2), 143-157.

Matsumoto, D., Keltner, D., Shiota, M. N., Frank, M. G., & O’Sullivan, M. (2008). What’s in a face? Facial expressions as signals of discrete emotions. In M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland & L. Feldman Barrett (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 211-234). New York: Guilford Press.

Matsumoto, D., & Willingham, B. (2009). Spontaneous Facial Expressions of Emotion of Congenitally and Non-Congenitally Blind Individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(1), 1-10.

Mesquita, B., & Frijda, N. H. (1992). Cultural variations in emotions: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 197-204.

McClure, Erin B 2000. A meta-analytic review of sex differences in facial expression processing and their development in infants, children, and adolescents
Psychological Bulletin. 126(3): 424-453.

Mead, M. 1975. Review of “Darwin and facial expression.” Journal of Communication, 25: 209-213.

Russell, James A. 1995. Facial Expressions of Emotion: What Lies Beyond Minimal Universality? Psychological bulletin. 118(3): 379-391.

Russell, James A. 1994. Is There Universal Recognition of Emotion From Facial Expression? A Review of the Cross-Cultural Studies. Psychological Bulletin. 115(1): 102-141.

Susskind, Joshua M and Adam K Anderson. Facial Expression Form and Function. Communicative Integrative Biology. 2008. 1(2): 148–149. PMCID: PMC2686004
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Body Language of Rocking The Body

Body Language of Rocking The Body

No picCue: Rocking The Body.

Synonym(s): Rocking Back and Forth, Swaying Back and Forth, Body Rocking, Body Shifting.

Description: a) A rhythmic motion of the torso from side to side or from front to back. b) The body is rocked from weight forward to weight back, from side to side usually while standing but can also be done while sitting.

In One Sentence: Rocking the body indicates emotional or body discomfort.

How To Use it: Body rocking is generally seen as a negative cue, but it can be used to signal to others that you are discomforted and wish to leave. Simply rock the body back and forth to show others that you want to leave. Rocking the body is also a way to prepare the body for action. This is useful in sports where people need to stay loose and ready for quick action such as in sprinting. Similarly, rocking is useful in keeping the blood flowing in other contexts too which can stimulate thinking.

Context: General, Dating.

Verbal Translation: “I’m rocking back and forth from side to side because I’m mentally ill (unlikely), ready to take action in a stressful event, or really need to move and burn off some of this pent up energy.” “I’m firing my engine and getting ready to take off – it’s time to wrap things up.” “I’m too cool so I’m rocking off by peeling my body away as if I’m about to leave, it’s time for you to do a little bit of the chasing.”

Variant: See Foot Kicking, Foot Fidgeting, Pacing, Blading Body Language, Body Angling or Ventral Displays, Buttress Stance or Foot Forward Leg Stance.

Cue In Action: a) Betsy was elderly and would rock constantly from side-to-side with a blank, empty expression. b) The sprinter rocked back and forth, kicked out his feet and jumped up and down readying to put in his best effort. c) You could tell the toddler needed to get outdoors after watching television for far too long, as he began to rock back and forth on the sofa. d) Danny rocked away slightly to his back foot as he needed to get to a meeting. e) After talking with a girl for some time, Danny body rocked to show that he was about to leave forcing her to do a little bit of the chasing to keep him interested.

Meaning and/or Motivation: Usually rocking signifies a negative thought and based on its intensity and persistence spells to what degree it is felt. High intensity rocking is found in the mentally ill such as those with schizophrenia, those with obsessive compulsive disorder, or hyperactivity disorder. Low grade rocking can be found in toddlers (and others) who are bored or who don’t get enough physical activity in efforts to release some of their pent up energy.

Rocking also indicates nervousness and can be found in people preparing for sporting events such as sprinting, or taking the stage such for a presentation, or even while waiting to engage in a stressful event such as a school test. In this case, rocking is a substitute for pacing and burning off positive energy in a controlled fashion in order to prepare for the constructive action that is to follow. Rocking can also mean that someone is agitated or upset and is ready to take action or self sooth so they can inhibit themselves from lashing out.

Body rocking is also a technique used to show a desire to leave a conversation. It is a body language expression done by design to show others that one must be someplace else in order to appear more important. It is meant to indicate a nonverbal “time constraint” and has been presented in a dating context to raise status in the eyes of women.

It is the associated clues coupled with the context that will determine the accurate message.

Cue Cluster: Watch for context over associated clue clusters to decipher the true meaning of body rocking. An empty, expressionless face in the elderly might indicate mental illness. Waiting outside a lecture room for an examination indicates nervous rocking while a toddler that rocks while watching television is almost a sure indication that he needs exercise. It is used in accompaniment with eye aversion, head lowered, reduced gestures, body angled away and toes pointed toward an exit, all of which signifies a desire to leave.

Body Language Category: Amplifier, Arousal, Autonomic signal, Boredom body language, Energy Displacement, Escape movements, Impatience, Intention movements, intension postures or intension cues, Metronomic signals, Nervous body language, Pacifying body language, Stressful body language, Worry body language.

Resources:

Broth, Mathias and Lorenza Mondada. Walking Away: The Embodied Achievement of Activity Closings in Mobile Interaction. Journal of Pragmatics. 2013. 47: 41-58.
http://bodylanguageproject.com/articles/nonverbally-negotiate-conversation-walking-away/

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Gregersen, Tammy S. Nonverbal Cues: Clues to the Detection of Foreign Language Anxiety. Foreign Language Annals. 2005. 38(3): 388-400
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Katza, Carmit; Irit Hershkowitz; Lindsay C. Malloya; Michael E. Lamba; Armita Atabakia and Sabine Spindlera. Non-Verbal Behavior of Children Who Disclose or do not Disclose Child Abuse in Investigative Interviews. Child Abuse & Neglect. 2012. 36: 12-20.
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Leete, Esso. How I Perceive and Manage My Illness. Schizophrenia Bulletin. 1989. 15(2): 197-200.

Mason, G.J. Stereotypies and suffering. Behavioural Processes. 1991. 25(2): 103-115.

Mendez, Mario F. ; Mirea, Adrian. Adult head-banging and stereotypic movement disorders. Movement Disorders. 1998. 13(5): 825-828.

Pederson, David R. Davidson, Park O. (editor). The soothing effect of rocking as determined by the direction and frequency of movement. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des Sciences du comportement. 1975. 7(3): 237-243.

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Shimooka, Yukiko ; Nakagawa, Naofumi. Functions of an unreported “rocking-embrace” gesture between female Japanese Macaques ( Macaca fuscata ) in Kinkazan Island, Japan. Primates. 2014. 55(2): 327-335.

Wolff, Sula. Childhood autism: its diagnosis, nature, and treatment. Archives of Disease in Childhood. 1991. 66(6): 737(5).

Body Language of Rapid Speech

Body Language of Rapid Speech

No picCue: Rapid Speech.

Synonym(s): Fast Talking, Speed Talking.

Description: A voice trait when the rate of speaking occurs at an above average rate. It makes understanding what is being said difficult to follow.

In One Sentence: Rapid speech is a sign of excitement, nervousness, and generally, a heightened emotional state.

How To Use it: Rapid speech is generally not viewed as a positive nonverbal signal. However, it will show others that you are in good spirits when done in the right contexts. Amongst friends for example, rapid speech can show giddiness and therefore a zest for life. In front of a large audience, however, a slower more controlled rate of speech is considered more appropriate.

Context: General.

Verbal Translation: “I’m talking fast and it might be due to any number of reasons, none of which will be viewed particularly positively. I could be nervous, excited, insecure, anxious, scared, angry or have low self esteem,”

Variant: See Slow Speech or Talking Slowly.

Cue In Action: Her giddiness to present her case made her ramble. Her sentences ran-on and her argument became impossible to decipher. After just a few minutes the audience discounted her completely and sided with the more clam and rational presenter.

Meaning and/or Motivation: Talking fast can be due to lying (fast talking salesman), a reaction to growing up in a house where it was hard to get a word in, a basic insecurity, poor self-esteem, efforts to gain attention, nervousness, impatience, anxiety, insecurity, excitement, fear, drugs or alcohol use, anger, desire to persuade or being caught in a lie.

Visual learners are habitually fast talkers as they race to keep up with the images that they are seeing in their mind.

Cue Cluster: Fast talking is usually accompanied by erratic gesticulation and body movements, pacing and face touching,

Body Language Category: Amplifier, Arousal, Aggressive body language, Anger body language, Emotional body language, Enthusiasm (nonverbal), Excited, Fearful body language, Low confidence body language, Lying or deceptive body language, Negative body language, Nervous body language, Stressful body language.

Resources:

Arduino, P. J., & Gould, J. L. (1984). Is tonic immobility adaptive? Animal Behavior, 32, 921–923.

Bracha, H. S. (2004). Freeze, flight, fight, fright, faint: Adaptionist perspectives on the acute stress response spectrum. CNS Spectrums, 9, 679–685.

Berridge CW,Mitton E, ClarkW, Roth RH. 1999. Engagement in a non-escape (displacement) behavior elicits a selective and lateralized suppression of frontal cortical dopaminergic utilization in stress. Synapse 32:187–197.

Buller, David, B. ; Aune, R. Kelly. The effects of speech rate similarity on compliance: Application of communication accommodation theory. Western Journal of Communication. 1992. 56(1): 37-53.

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Jacob, Heike ; Kreifelts, Benjamin ; Brück, Carolin ; Erb, Michael ; Hösl, Franziska ; Wildgruber, Dirk. Cerebral integration of verbal and nonverbal emotional cues: Impact of individual nonverbal dominance. NeuroImage. 2012. 61(3): 738-747.

Koppensteiner, Markus ; Grammer, Karl. Body movements of male and female speakers and their influence on perceptions of personality. Personality and Individual Differences. 2011. 51(6): 743-747.

Koppensteiner, Markus ; Stephan, Pia ; Jäschke, Johannes Paul Michael. From body motion to cheers: Speakers’ body movements as predictors of applause. Personality and Individual Differences. 2015. 74: 182-185.

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Porter, S., & ten Brinke, L. (2010). The truth about lies: What works in detecting high-stakes deception? Legal and Criminological Psychology, 15(1), 57.

Reiss, S., Peterson, R. A., Gursky, D. M., &McNally, R. J. (1986). Anxiety sensitivity, anxiety frequency, and the prediction of fearfulness. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 24, 1–8.

Schmidt, N. B., Miller, J., Lerew, D. R., Woolaway-Bickel, K., & Fitzpatrick, K. (2002). Imaginal provocation of panic in patients with panic disorder. Behavior Therapy, 33, 149–162.

Simonds, Brentk. ; Meyer, Kevinr. ; Quinlan, Margaretm. ; Hunt, Stephenk. Effects of Instructor Speech Rate on Student Affective Learning, Recall, and Perceptions of Nonverbal Immediacy, Credibility, and Clarity. Communication Research Reports. 2006. 23(3): 187-197.

Takeharuseno ; Takeharuseno ; Takeharuseno ; Keikoihaya ; Yukiyamada. I speak fast when I move fast: The speed of illusory self-motion (vection) modulates the speed of utterance. Frontiers in Psychology. 2013.

Townsend, Howardw. Factors of influence in radio speech. Quarterly Journal of Speech. 1944. 30(2): 187-190.

Vrij, A., Edward, K., Roberts, K., & Bull, R. (2000) Detecting deceit via analysis of verbal and nonverbal behavior. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 24(4).

Vrij, A., Harden, E, Terry, J., Edward, K., & Bull, R. (2000). The influence of personal characteristics, stakes and lie complexity on the accuracy and confidence to detect deceit, in R. Roesch, R.R. Corrado, & R. J. Dempster (Eds.), Psychology in the courts: International advances in knowledge. Amsterdam: Harwood Academic.