Category: Escape movements

*No Photo, Body size reduction, Defensive body language, Emotional body language, Escape movements, Frustration or frustrated body language, Protective reflexes, Submissive body language

Body Language of The Bow and Body Bend

by Chris • October 18, 2014 • 0 Comments

Body Language of The Bow and Body Bend

Cue Bow and Body Bend

Synonym(s): Kowtow (Chinese), b) Standing Fetal Position (when due to pain), Prostration.

Description: a) The bow is a gesture done by bending at the waist toward the ground. b) A standing fetal position where the body bends at the waist.

In One Sentence: Bowing is a form of appeasement and also submission which is used to show respect.

How To Use it: Use the bow to show others respect or admiration. This can be done by titling the head down slightly which comes across as shame, or by lowering the eyes. When both cues are done simultaneously, this signals a desire to placate a higher authority. Lowering the body by bending at the waist can also be used to show that one is not in full spirits. This is read as cowering. When done in the face of authority, this may produce feelings of sympathy rather than aggression. In turn, they may offer care and assistance to try to ‘lift your spirits.’

Context: General.

Verbal Translation: a) “I respect you enough to trust you won’t hit me on the top of my head while I lower my eyes toward the ground.” b) “I’ve been emotionally hurt (in the guts) and feel like I need to crouch over in pain.”

Variant: See Crouching.

Cue In Action: a) When addressing the King, Sir Charles bent at the waist and bowed to show his admiration. b) After missing a crucial putt, Tiger bend over in emotional agony.

Meaning and/or Motivation: a) It is a form of supplication as it lowers the body. It is usually done in front of an audience or high ranking official as a way to accept their gratitude or adulation. The body bend shows others that they respect the authority figure and that they are ready to submit to them and their will.

b) A standing fetal position meant is meant to protect or comfort during emotional stress. The body takes on a smaller position and hunches up in exasperation. When the body bends in this way, it’s trying to appear submissive and create a smaller target preventing a more dominant individual from attacking. We see this type of posture when people are hurt emotionally and it is especially prominent while in a seated position. The body will lean to the side and the arms will fold over the stomach as if the guts were cramped up in pain.

Cue Cluster: b) Normally accompanied by hands coming up to the head and clasping or sometimes cut short as if swatting the air away in disgust.

Body Language Category: Body size reduction, Defensive, Escape movements, Frustration or frustrated body language, Protective reflexes, Emotional body language, Submissive body language.

Resources:

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Barriers, Blading, Body pointing, Disengagement body language, Escape movements, Intention movements, Orienting reflex or orienting response, Ventral displays

Body Language Of The Body Cutoff

by Chris • October 18, 2014 • 0 Comments

Body Language Of The Body Cutoff

Cue: Body Cutoff

Synonym(s): N/A

Description: A body cutoff happens when someone turns their shoulders and torso away from someone in order to end a conversation.

In One Sentence: See Description.

How To Use it: Use the body cutoff by turning the shoulders away from your speaking partner to show that you are about to leave. This tells them to hurry up and finish what they have to say or conversely, work harder to maintain your attention. When used like this, the body cutoff is a power play because it shows that you are busy and have other things to do – even when you don’t. If you do this, it shows that you are in control and that you are more important. Men can use this effectively in a dating scenario to trick women into thinking that they are about to leave and that they value their time. This may make her think or feel that she needs to work harder to maintain his attention. The main aim is to threaten to leave at any moment. This signals a high social value. The signal can be used in other context such as in business or amongst friends with similar perceptions likely.

Context: General, Business.

Verbal Translation: “I’m going to go now, so I’m turning my shoulders away from you and toward the door, you should really be wrapping things up now.”

Variant: See Blading Body Language, Body Angling or Ventral Displays.

Cue In Action: Mark and Ben had been talking for a long time when Ben suddenly realized he needed to be someplace. Ben quickly checked his watch, seemed to glaze over and turn his shoulders and feet toward the door. He needed to go, and used his body language to show his intent.

Meaning and/or Motivation: When people wish to exit a situation they will cut their centerline off from the conversation as if getting ready to leave.

In the body cutoff, the body orients toward and away from stimuli it agrees with, and disagrees with, respectively. Also the greater the angle, the less interest or more dislike is present (See Blading Body Language, Body Angling or Ventral Displays).

A body cut off is an orienting reflex designed to end conversations and express an interest in leaving a situation.

Cue Cluster: The body cutoff cue is accompanied by feet pointed away, increased separation by taking a step back, reduced eye contact, eyes glazing over, fewer agreement indicators such as head nods and other cues indicating a desire to leave.

Body Language Category: Barriers, Body pointing, Blading, Escape movements, Intention movements, Orienting reflex or orienting response, Disengagement, Ventral displays.

Resources:

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Attentive body language, Barriers, Courtship display, Defensive body language, Dislike (nonverbal), Escape movements, Indicator Of Sexual Interest (IOsI), Indicators of disinterest (IOD), Indicators of sexual disinterest (IOsD), Intention movements, Liking, Orienting reflex or orienting response

The Hidden Meaning of Blading Body Language, Body Angling or Ventral Displays

by Chris • October 18, 2014 • 0 Comments

The Hidden Meaning of Blading Body Language, Body Angling or Ventral Displays

Cue: Blading Body Language, Body Angling or Ventral Displays

Synonym(s): Ventral Displays, Ventral Fronting, Ventral Denial, Ventral Distancing, Body Orientation, Body Angling, Seated Body Pointing, Turning The Body Away From Someone, Turning The Body Toward Someone, Chest Orientation, Facing Away, Facing Toward.

Description: The turning of the body, the shoulders and chest, either toward or away from stimuli.

In One Sentence: Bodies turn toward ideas and people they agree with, and turn away from ideas and people they disagree with.

How To Use it: The application of blading body language is simple in practice. To show or feign agreement simply turn your shoulders toward the speaker. To show or feign disagreement simply turn your shoulders away from the speaker. Feigning either condition can force other people to chase you, despite your general agreement. This can be effective in a dating context as your counterpart will work harder to placate your interests. This can also be effective in negotiations. Simply blade away to show that the offer advanced does not meet your conditions. Your “disinterest” will create an incentive to boost their offer in your favour.

Context: General.

Verbal Translation: a) “I like what I’m hearing so my body is angling toward you so we’re facing each other even more” b) “I don’t like what I’m hearing so my body is angling away from you so I can leave.”

Variant: Bodies might be angled or leaned in toward someone that is liked the most rather than for any form of agreement or disagreement.

Cue In Action: a) Jill turned her shoulders toward Bill when he paid her an honest compliment. b) When the much more successful associate, Frank arrived, Jill slowly turned away from Bill to focus her attention on Frank. After turning toward Frank, she made eye contact and began preening herself by fixing her hair. Her interest shifted from Bill to Frank which was obvious to onlookers by her shift in orientation.

Meaning and/or Motivation: Torsos house important vital organs that are responsible for keeping the body alive. Heart, lungs, liver, intestines and so forth are all easily accessible through a thin layer of skin, fat, muscle, ribs and a sternum and exposing our ventral side means that we trust we won’t be attacked and is therefore a signal of openness and liking. Ventral sides are usually oriented toward people we like and away from those we dislike.

Torsos will turn and angle away more and more as an encounter becomes more disagreeable. On the other hand, torsos will angle and turn toward as an encounter becomes more agreeable. When torsos face each other head-on, however, this can indicate direct confrontation or, contrarily, high intimacy (and engagement).

“Blading away” is to “turn the back on someone.” This demonstrates dislike, disagreement and disengagement.

“Blading toward” is to “turn to face someone.” This demonstrates liking, agreement and engagement.

Think of a knife, a “blade” that is turned on an angle so as to slice more or less sharply.

The greater the angle the greater the relative nonverbal meaning.

Cue Cluster: a) Ventral fronting or blading toward can be accompanied by leaning in to increase proximity, removing objects to create a clear view and various agreement indicators such as head nodding, eye contact, and touching. b) Ventral denial can appear with slouching, lean backward, orienting the torso away, or placing objects in front of the body such as clothing or books.

Body Language Category: a) Attentive, Courtship display, Liking, Indicators of sexual interest (IOsI), Intention movements, Orienting reflex or orienting response b) Barriers, Defensive, Dislike (nonverbal), Escape movements, Indicators of disinterest (IOD), Indicators of sexual disinterest (IOsD), Intention movements, Orienting reflex or orienting response.

Resources:

Allison, T., Puce, A., & McCarthy, G. (2000). Social perception from visual cues: role of the STS region. Trends in Cognitive Neurosciences, 4, 267–278.

Argyle, M., & Dean, I. Eye contact, distance and affiliation. Sociometry, 1965, 28, 289-304.

Boucher, Michael L. Holzberg, Jules D. (editor). Effect of seating distance on interpersonal attraction in an interview situation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1972 38(1): 15-19.

Belhiah, Hassan. Tutoring as an embodied activity: How speech, gaze and body orientation are coordinated to conduct ESL tutorial business. Journal of Pragmatics. 2009. 41(4): 829-841

Beaulieu, Catherine. Intercultural Study of Personal Space: A Case Study. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 2004 34(4):794-805.

Cook, Mark. 1970. Experiments on orientation and proxemics. Human Relations 23 (1): 61-76.

Cook, M. Experiments on orientation and proxemics. Human Relations, 1970, 23, 61-67.

Clack, B., Dixon, J., & Tredoux, C. (2005). Eating together apart: Patterns of segregation in a multi-ethnic cafeteria. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 15, 1-16. doi:10.1002/casp.787

Castelli, Luigi ; Carraro, Luciana ; Pavan, Giulia ; Murelli, Elisa ; Carraro, Alessia. The Power of the Unsaid: The Influence of Nonverbal Cues on Implicit Attitudes. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 2012 42(6): 1376-1393.

Coutts, Larrym. ; Ledden, Maribeth. Nonverbal Compensatory Reactions to Changes in Interpersonal Proximity. The Journal of Social Psychology. 1977 102(2): 283-290.

Dolphin, Carol Zinner. Beyond hall: Variables in the use of personal space in intercultural transactions. Howard Journal of Communications. 1988. 1(1): 23-38.

Eerland, Anita; Tulio M. Guadalupe; Ingmar H. A. Franken and Rolf A. Zwaan. Posture as Index for Approach-Avoidance Behavior. PLOS one. February 2012. 7(2): e31291.
http://bodylanguageproject.com/articles/approach-versus-avoidance-posture-in-nonverbal-body-language/

Friesen, C.K., & Kingstone, A. (1998). The eyes have it: Reflexive orienting is triggered by nonpredictive gaze. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 5, 490–493.

Felipe, N. Interpersonal distance and small group interaction. Cornell Journal of Social Relations, 1966, 1, 59-64.

Felipe, N. Connotations of seating arrangements. Cornell Journal of Social Relations, 1967, 2, 37-44.

Gifford, Robert ; O’Connor, Brian. Nonverbal intimacy: Clarifying the role of seating distance and orientation. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior. 1986 10(4): 207-214.

George, N., Driver, J., & Dolan, R. J. (2001). Seen gaze-direction modulates fusiform activity and its coupling with other brain areas during face processing. Neuroimage, 13, 1102–1112.

Gunderson, Virginia M. ; Lockard, Joan S. Human postural signals as intention movements to depart: African data. Animal Behaviour. 1980 28(3): 966-967.

Graziano, Michael S.A. and Cooke, Dylan F. Parieto-frontal interactions, personal space, and defensive behavior. Neuropsychologia. 2006. 44(6): 845-859.

Hall, Edward T. (1963). “A System for the Notation of Proxemic Behavior.” In American Anthropologist (Vol. 65), pp. 1003-26.

Holt, Daphne J ; Cassidy, Brittany S ; Yue, Xiaomin ; Rauch, Scott L ; Boeke, Emily A ; Nasr, Shahin ; Tootell, Roger B H ; Coombs, Garth. Neural correlates of personal space intrusion. The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience. 2014. 34(12): 4123-34.

Hietanen, J. K. (1999). Does your gaze direction and head orientation shift my visual attention? Neuroreport, 10, 3443–3447.

Hall, Jeffrey A. and Chong Xing. The Verbal and Nonverbal Correlates of the Five Flirting Styles. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior. 2015. 39:41–68. DOI 10.1007/s10919-014-0199-8
http://bodylanguageproject.com/articles/first-12-minutes-flirting-using-nonverbal-communication-study-reveals-26-body-language-cues-attraction/

Hietanen, Jari. Social attention orienting integrates visual information from head and body orientation. Psychological Research.2002 66(3): 174-179.

IJzerman, Hans; Marcello Gallucci; Wim T.J.L. Pouw; Sophia C. Weigerber; Niels J. Van Doesum and Kipling D. Williams. Cold-Blooded Loneliness: Social Exclusion Leads To Lower Skin Temperatures. Acta Psychologica. 2012. 140:283-288. http://bodylanguageproject.com/articles/body-temperature-actually-drops-during-social-exclusion/

Koppensteiner, Markus ; Stephan, Pia ; Jäschke, Johannes Paul Michael. From body motion to cheers: Speakers’ body movements as predictors of applause. Personality and Individual Differences. 2015. 74: 182-185.

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Kaminski, Juliane ; Call, Josep ; Tomasello, Michael. Body orientation and face orientation: two factors controlling apes’ begging behavior from humans
Animal Cognition. 2004. 7(4): 216-223.

Lockard, J.S. ; Allen, D.J. ; Schiele, B.J. ; Wiemer, M.J. Human postural signals: Stance, weight-shifts and social distance as intention movements to depart. Animal Behaviour. 1978 26: 219-224.

Langton, S. R. H. (2000). The mutual influence of gaze and head orientation in the analysis of social attention direction. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 53A, 825–845.

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Navarro, Joe. 2008. What Every BODY is Saying: An Ex-FBI Agent’s Guide to Speed-Reading People. William Morrow Paperbacks.

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Robinson, Jeffrey David. Getting Down to Business Talk, Gaze, and Body Orientation During Openings of Doctor-Patient Consultations. Human Communication Research. 1998. 25(1): 97-123.

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Scherer, S. E., & Schiff, M. R. Perceived intimacy, physical distance, and eye contact. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1973, 36, 835-841.

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*No Photo, Disengagement body language, Dislike (nonverbal), Escape movements, Stressful body language

The Hidden Meaning of Arm Withdrawal or Leg Withdrawal Body Language

by Chris • October 17, 2014 • 0 Comments

The Hidden Meaning of Arm Withdrawal or Leg Withdrawal Body Language

Cue: Arm Withdrawal or Leg Withdrawal

Synonym(s): Distancing, Pulling Arms or Legs In, Drawing Arms Or Legs In, Flexation Withdrawal.

Description: When the arms are suddenly pulled inward toward the body rather than away in order to create more distance between oneself and another. There will be times that distancing behaviours are not terribly dramatic.

In One Sentence: Drawing the arms or legs inward shows that a person is not engaged in another person or the topic, and at times, even withdrawn from a person or their ideas.

How To Use it: Pull the arms and legs away from people and their ideas when you wish to demonstrate disagreement. By coupling arm withdrawal in close or even immediate connection to specific spoken words you will tell others that you disagree with them nonverbally. This can be useful in any context including between friends, colleagues or lovers.

Context: General.

Verbal Translation: “I disagree and want to get away but that would be too overt or prohibited at the moment, so I’m just going to do by pull my arms or legs away to make me feel like I’m escaping.”

Variant: See Blading Body Language, Body Angling or Ventral Displays.

Cue In Action: During a meeting over coffee, everything was fine until Dave told a sexist joke at which point Jill pull her arms onto her side of the table in disgust and turned her head away.

Meaning and/or Motivation: Arm and leg withdrawal indicates a lack of agreement or a difference of opinion. It can also indicate stress and anxiety. Even just a few inches of withdrawal can tell us that ideas and the people that voice them are diverging. When the legs or arms are suddenly withdrawn it can be a good indicator that what has been said is offensive or disagreeable to the other party.

When the feet or legs of couples are pulled in rather than neutral or extended toward each other, it can signal that the relationship isn’t going well.

Cue Cluster: Arm withdrawal is often coupled with leaning away, facing away, torso and feet turned toward an exit, disgusted or bored facial expression and postures.

Body Language Category: Stressful body language, Disengagement, Dislike (nonverbal), Escape movements.

Resources:

Arduino, P. J., & Gould, J. L. (1984). Is tonic immobility adaptive? Animal Behavior, 32, 921–923.

Bracha, H. S. (2004). Freeze, flight, fight, fright, faint: Adaptionist perspectives on the acute stress response
spectrum. CNS Spectrums, 9, 679–685.

Burgess, A. W., & Holmstrom, L. L. (1976). Coping behavior of the rape victim. American Journal of Psychiatry,
133, 413–418.

Cacioppo, J. T., Priester, J. R., & Berntson, G. G. (1993). Rudimentary determinants of attitudes: II. Arm flexion and extension have differential effects on attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 5–17.

Cannon, W. B. (1929). Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear and rage (2nd ed.). New York: Appleton, Century,
Crofts.

Estes, Zachary Estes and Michelle Verges. Freeze or flee? Negative stimuli elicit selective responding. Cognition. 2008. 108(2): 557-565.

Fo¨rster, J. (2004). How body feedback influences consumer’s evaluation of products. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 14, 415–425.

Friedman, R. S., & Fo¨rster, J. (2000). The effects of approach and avoidance motor actions on the elements of creative insight. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 477–492.

Fyer, M. R., Uy, J., Martinez, J., & Goetz, R. (1987). CO2 challenge of patients with panic disorder. American
Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 1080–1082.

Galliano, G., Noble, L. M., Travis, L. A., & Puechl, C. (1993). Victim reactions during rape/sexual assault: A preliminary study of the immobility response and its correlates. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 8, 109–114.

Gallup, G. G. (1977). Tonic immobility: The role of fear and predation. Psychological Record, 27, 41–61.

Gillis, M. M., Haaga, D. A., & Ford, G. T. (1995). Normative values for the beck anxiety inventory, fear questionnaire, Penn state worry questionnaire, and social phobia and anxiety inventory. Psychological
Assessment, 7, 450–455.

Heidt, J. M., Marx, B. P., & Forsyth, J. P. (2005). Tonic immobility and childhood sexual abuse: A preliminary report evaluating the sequela of rape-induced paralysis. Behavior Research and Therapy, 43, 1157–1171.

Kalin, N. H., Shelton, S. E., Rickman, M., & Davidson, R. J. (1998). Individual differences in freezing and
cortisol in infant and mother rhesus monkeys. Behavioral Neuroscience, 112, 251–254.

Liebowitz, M. R., Gorman, J. M., Fyer, A. J., Dillon, D. J., & Klein, D. F. (1984). Effects of naltrexone on patients with panic attacks. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 995–997.

Laird, J. D., Wagener, J. J., Halal, M., & Szegda, M. (1982). Remembering what you feel: Effects of emotion on memory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 646–657.

Mattick, R. P., & Clarke, J. C. (1998). Development and validation of measures of social phobia scrutiny fear and social interaction anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 455–470.

Neumann, R., & Strack, F. (2000). Approach and avoidance: The influence of proprioceptive and exteroceptive cues on encoding of affective information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 39–48.

Navarro, Joe. 2008. What Every BODY is Saying: An Ex-FBI Agent’s Guide to Speed-Reading People. William Morrow Paperbacks.

Reiss, S., Peterson, R. A., Gursky, D. M., &McNally, R. J. (1986). Anxiety sensitivity, anxiety frequency, and the prediction of fearfulness. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 24, 1–8.

Riskind, J. H., & Gotay, C. C. (1982). Physical posture: Could it have regulatory or feedback effects upon motivation and emotion? Motivation and Emotion, 6, 273–296.

Stepper, S., & Strack, F. (1993). Proprioceptive determinants of emotional and nonemotional feelings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 211–220.

Sagliano, Laura ; Cappuccio, Angela ; Trojano, Luigi ; Conson, Massimiliano. Approaching threats elicit a freeze-like response in humans. Neuroscience Letters. 2014. 561: 35-40.

Schmidt, Norman B. ; Richey, J. Anthony ; Zvolensky, Michael J. ; Maner, Jon K. Exploring human freeze responses to a threat stressor. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry. 2008. 39(3): 292-304.

Schmidt, N. B., & Joiner, T., Jr. (2002). Structure of the anxiety sensitivity index: Psychometrics and factor structure in a community sample. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 16, 33–49.

Schmidt, N. B., Miller, J., Lerew, D. R., Woolaway-Bickel, K., & Fitzpatrick, K. (2002). Imaginal provocation of
panic in patients with panic disorder. Behavior Therapy, 33, 149–162.

Schmidt, N. B., & Telch, M. J. (1994). Role of fear of fear and safety information in moderating the effects of voluntary hyperventilation. Behavior Therapy, 25, 197–208.

Suarez, S. D., & Gallup, G. G. (1979). Tonic immobility as a response to rape in humans: A theoretical note. The Psychological Record, 29, 315–320.

Tamir, M., Robinson, M. D., Clore, G. L., Martin, L. L., & Whitaker, D. J. (2004). Are we puppets on a string? The contextual meaning of unconscious expressive cues. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 237–249.

Zvolensky, M. J., & Eifert, G. H. (2001). A review of psychological factors/processes affecting anxious responding during voluntary hyperventilation and inhalations of carbon dioxide-enriched air. Clinical Psychology Review,
21, 375–400.

Defensive body language, Escape movements, Fearful body language, Negative body language, Stressful body language

Body Language of Arm Freezing Behaviour or Leg Freezing Behaviour

by Chris • October 17, 2014 • 0 Comments

Body Language of Arm Freezing Behaviour or Leg Freezing Behaviour

Cue: Arm Freezing Behaviour or Leg Freezing Behaviour.

Synonym(s): Flight or Fight Response, Leg Freezing Behaviour.

Description: Arm freezing refers to the sudden reduction or elimination of movement in the arms or hands such as gesticulation, due to stress or fear.

When hands or arms freeze, the hands can be stuffed into the pockets, be hidden under the table or be placed palm down on the table or held tightly on the lap in order to reduce gesticulation. Additionally, the hands may be coupled hand-in-hand on the lap, fingers entwined and placed on the table, or seem to be praying near chest level.

The cue is especially salient when they seem to freeze suddenly – especially when something particularly damning or incriminating, or something that can be the source of discomfort has occurred.

In One Sentence: Hand freezing is to “hide in plain sight” and indicates that one is fearful.

How To Use it: Use arm freezing behaviour to show others that you are in disagreement with what they are saying. The hands can also be frozen to feign fear. This can be effective in bluffing in poker.

Context: General.

Verbal Translation: “I’m scared and I’m going to stop moving so I can try to escape detection and hide in plain sight.”

Variant: See Hands In Pockets, Feet Wrapped Around Legs Of Chair.

Cue In Action: a) A child happily plays on the kitchen floor with a truck set when a close relative suddenly appears – the child freezes. In children, a sudden freeze response can indicate the presence of abusive parents or relatives. b) The boss suddenly walks in the room and sees you playing video games on company time – your hands lock up and you can’t click to a new screen.

Meaning and/or Motivation: A fear driven or high stress response.

Hands can suddenly change in terms of use as illustrators and seem to pause, stop or slow in their rate of use. Sudden cessation of gesticulation can indicate a freeze response due to being caught in a lie, especially when the context warrants it. This is part of the flight or flight response as liars are trying to seem less noticeable. They are “hiding in plain sight” and to do this it is necessary to move less as movement attracts attention.

Reducing expressiveness means fewer “tells” or so the lying mind thinks. When hands or feet that are usually busy, suddenly begin to slow, or become less expressive, it can signal a lack of enthusiasm or confidence for the topic. Whatever happens to the hands, when they suddenly change, we know that something internal has changed and it is usually tied directly to whatever is happening in the moment.

Cue Cluster: Arm and leg freezing is accompanied by other minimizing cues such as head lowered, ducked or down, erection of barriers as well as escape movements such as moving feet toward the door.

Body Language Category: Fearful body language, Stressful body language, Defensive, Escape movements, Negative body language.

Resources:

Arduino, P. J., & Gould, J. L. (1984). Is tonic immobility adaptive? Animal Behavior, 32, 921–923.

Bracha, H. S. (2004). Freeze, flight, fight, fright, faint: Adaptionist perspectives on the acute stress response spectrum. CNS Spectrums, 9, 679–685.

Burgess, A. W., & Holmstrom, L. L. (1976). Coping behavior of the rape victim. American Journal of Psychiatry, 133, 413–418.

Baxter, James C., and Richard M. Rozelle (1975). “Nonverbal Expression as a Function of Crowding During a Simulated Police-Citizen Encounter.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 32(1): 40-54.

Cannon, W. B. (1929). Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear and rage (2nd ed.). New York: Appleton, Century, Crofts.

Estes, Zachary Estes and Michelle Verges. Freeze or flee? Negative stimuli elicit selective responding. Cognition. 2008. 108(2): 557-565.

Fyer, M. R., Uy, J., Martinez, J., & Goetz, R. (1987). CO2 challenge of patients with panic disorder. American
Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 1080–1082.

Gallup, G. G. (1977). Tonic immobility: The role of fear and predation. Psychological Record, 27, 41–61.

Kalin, N. H., Shelton, S. E., Rickman, M., & Davidson, R. J. (1998). Individual differences in freezing and
cortisol in infant and mother rhesus monkeys. Behavioral Neuroscience, 112, 251–254.

Liebowitz, M. R., Gorman, J. M., Fyer, A. J., Dillon, D. J., & Klein, D. F. (1984). Effects of naltrexone on patients with panic attacks. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 995–997.

LeDoux, Joseph (1996). The Emotional Brain: The Mysterious Underpinnings of Emotional Life (New York: Simon & Schuster).

McGrew, W. C. (1972). “Aspects of Social Development in Nursery School Children with Emphasis on Introduction to the Group.” In N. G. Blurton Jones, ed., Ethological Studies of Child Behaviour (Cambridge: University Press), pp. 129-56.