Category: Self-motivating gestures

*No Photo, Amplifier, Masked emotions, Pacifying body language, Relaxed body language, Self-motivating gestures, Stressful body language

Body Language of Whistling

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Body Language of Whistling

Cue: Whistling.

Synonym(s): Singing to Oneself

Description: Blowing air over the lips and teeth to produce a high pitched sound – often producing a ‘tune’ with varying music notes.

In One Sentence: Whistling is a sign of happiness or that a person needs to self-sooth and calm themselves.

How To Use it: Use whistling to show others your positive spirit. Carrying an upbeat tune shows other people that you are content which can be contagious. Whistling can be used in any context, but should be avoided where silence is the norm such as in a library or other situations where other people require focus and concentration.

Context: General.

Verbal Translation: “I’m whistling because I’m happy or because I need to calm myself down in a stressful situation.”

Variant: See Blowing Off Steam.

Cue In Action: a) He just won first prize and was whistling a happy upbeat tune. b) He was lost in the woods and had circled the same area more than once. He whistled to himself to stay motivated and calm his nerves.

Meaning and/or Motivation: Whistling indicates contentment, usually, however it can also signify the desire to be pacified making it context specific.

The type of tune, high or low, happy or sad, as well as the context will determine the hidden meaning behind whistling. One might also watch for breaks in singing that is otherwise content. This might indicate a level of momentary stress that has arisen during a difficult task. For example, one might be pleasantly working on a home car build project and struggle with the wrench. As a person applies force or concentrates, there is a break in singing. Long pauses might be present during deep concentration. The break in whistling is an indication that there has been a change in focus.

Cue Cluster: Watch for adjoining stress related cues or relaxed cues to verify the meaning. It is important to verify the baseline of an individual to decide what whistling really means as some use it to pacify and others to indicate happiness.

Body Language Category: Amplifier, Masked emotions, Pacifying body language, Relaxed body language, Self-motivating gestures, Stressful body language.

Resources:

NONE

Auto contact or self touching, Boredom body language, Displacement behaviour, Energy Displacement, Metronomic signals, Pensive displays, Self-motivating gestures

Body Language of Tapping The Fingers or Metronomic Signals

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Body Language of Tapping The Fingers or Metronomic Signals

BodyLanguageProjectCom - Tapping The Fingers or Metronomic Signals 4 BodyLanguageProjectCom - Tapping The Fingers or Metronomic Signals 1Cue: Tapping The Fingers or Metronomic Signals.

Synonym(s): Metronomic Signals, Finger Tapping, Foot Tapping, Pencil Tapping, Keyboard Tapping, Mouth Tapping, Lip Tapping, Head Tapping, Drumming.

Description: Tapping or drumming of the feet, fingers, or with the help objects such as pens.

In One Sentence: Metronomic signals show a desire to release extra energy, that a person is anxious, or that thought is taking place.

How To Use it: So long as metronomic signals are not loud or disruptive, they may be useful in telling others that you are in the process of coming up with a solution to a problem. Repetitive actions may also help prime the brain toward a solution by putting the body into motion. In other cases, the release of extra energy can help relax the mind and produce a tactile outlet. Tapping the fingers or toes may also tell others that you need some time to think and shouldn’t be bothered, thus buying some time.

Generally, however, metronomic signals are to be avoided as they signal that one is struggling to process information. One should certainly avoid the signals when they may be construed as indicating boredom – unless one actually wishes to send that signal.

Context: General.

Verbal Translation: a) “I’m bored. I’m kicking my feet and tapping my fingers to release some of my pent up energy. Escaping the situation is not practical.” b) “I’m bumping my feet up and down because I need something to do as my anxiety grows. c) “I’m tapping my pen against my lips in effort to keep my energy up to help me find the answer to my problem.”

Variant: See Foot Fidgeting.

Cue In Action: a) The lecture dragged on and on. All he wanted to do was get out of there and enjoy the weekend. His foot bumped up and down. b) On his first date, his foot bounced up and down indicating that he felt a little unsettled. c) He knew the answer, but it wasn’t coming to him. He tapped the pen against his mouth as he worked through his thoughts.

Meaning and/or Motivation: Tapping has three possible main root causes. It can indicate a) boredom, b) anxiety or that c) thought is taking place.

Repetitive tapping is often a sign of boredom. It can include tapping the toes, swinging the feet with one crossed over the other, or drumming the fingers on the table. In a larger context, tapping is a form of energy displacement where the body shows its desire to burn off what it has in excess as it deals with a situation that does not permit one to leave.

The hands and feet are key places to verify anxiety and will be the usual suspects in betraying emotions. They move easily and freely from the rest of the body and can be used to burn energy and release stress anxiety without requiring the body to move large distances. Because they can be moved independent of the body, they also tend to leak information more readily. Therefore, to read anxiety, carefully watch for tapping toes or fingers. Likewise, watch for feet that move frequently or never seem to find a comfortable position as well as any other repetitive behaviours. Foot movements will show more restraint than hand movements especially if someone is trying to hide fear from others.

In other cases, repetitive motions are an indication of a persons desire to motivate themselves. When someone is trying to come up with a solution, we normally see them tap their head with their fingertips or bring their fingertips to their lips. They may also be seen tapping a pencil or pen against their teeth or lips. When the context is appropriate expect tapping to show that a person is trying to jump start their thought process. The tapping is a way for a person to remain active and keep the blood flowing and energy up, as they fight to come up with a solution. This cue is common in the examination room.

Cue Cluster: Anxiety is often accompanied by looking away or becoming distracted, avoiding eye contact, rubbing the hands together, pinching an eyelid, smoothing clothing, rotating a wedding ring, nail-biting, or sucking a finger or pen. These all indicate a hidden thought linked to anxiety.

Boredom is often coupled with sitting slumped over with a glazed look on a person’s face coupled with an staring blankly at the floor or a spot on the wall. People also signal boredom by fidgeting, supporting the head on the hand, leaning against walls or tables, slouching backwards, letting the eyes wonder, gazing into the distance, sighing heavily, yawning, crossing and re-crossing the arms and legs, fiddling with pens, eyeglasses or papers, doodling, pointing the body away from the speaker, shifting weight, moving the head from side to side, rolling the eyes, stretching, and picking at the fingernails.

Tapping as a motivating gesture is indicated primarily through context, such as when writing an examination or while contemplating a move in chess.

Body Language Category: Auto contact or self touching, Boredom body language, Displacement behaviour, Energy Displacement, Metronomic signals, Pensive displays, Self-motivating gestures.

Resources:

Almerigogna, Jehanne; James Ost; Lucy Akehurst and Mike Fluck. How Interviewers’ Nonverbal Behaviors Can Affect Children’s Perceptions And Suggestibility. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 2008. 100:17-39.
http://bodylanguageproject.com/articles/get-children-tell-truth-using-body-language/

Da Silva, Felipe N. ; Irani, Farzin ; Richard, Jan ; Brensinger, Colleen M. ; Bilker, Warren B. ; Gur, Raquel E. ; Gur, Ruben C. More than just tapping: Index finger-tapping measures procedural learning in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research. 2012. 137(1-3): 234-240.

Doody, John ; Bull, Peter. Asperger’s Syndrome and the Decoding of Boredom, Interest, and Disagreement from Body Posture. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior. 2011. 35(2): 87-100.

Dube, Ashlynn ; Marjanne Kameka ; Stacy M. Lopresti-Goodman. Stereotypical Behaviors in Chimpanzees Rescued from the African Bushmeat and Pet Trade. Behavioral Sciences. 2012. 3(1): 1-20.

Farley, James; Risko, Evan F; Kingstone, Alan. Everyday Attention And Lecture Retention: The Effects Of Time, Fidgeting, And Mind Wandering. Frontiers In Psychology, 2013; 4: 619
http://bodylanguageproject.com/articles/mind-wandering-fidgeting-and-attention/

Gregersen, Tammy S. Nonverbal Cues: Clues to the Detection of Foreign Language Anxiety. Foreign Language Annals. 2005. 38(3): 388-400
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Hatz, Jessica L. and Martin J. Bourgeois. Anger as a Cue to Truthfulness. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 2010. 46: 680-683.
http://bodylanguageproject.com/articles/anger-nonverbal-cue-truth-telling/

Hall, Jeffrey A. and Chong Xing. The Verbal and Nonverbal Correlates of the Five Flirting Styles. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior. 2015. 39:41–68. DOI 10.1007/s10919-014-0199-8
http://bodylanguageproject.com/articles/first-12-minutes-flirting-using-nonverbal-communication-study-reveals-26-body-language-cues-attraction/

Karin Roelofs; Muriel A. Hagenaars; and John Stins. Facing Freeze: Social Threat Induces Bodily Freeze in Humans. Psychological Science. 2010 21(11): 1575-1581.
http://bodylanguageproject.com/articles/angry-faces-elicit-freeze-response-in-people-research/

Kirkland, Rena A. ; Peterson, Eric ; Baker, Crystal A. ; Miller, Stephanie ; Pulos, Steven. Meta-analysis reveals adult female superiority in “Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test”.(Report). North American Journal of Psychology. 2013. 15(1): 12.

Katza, Carmit; Irit Hershkowitz; Lindsay C. Malloya; Michael E. Lamba; Armita Atabakia and Sabine Spindlera. Non-Verbal Behavior of Children Who Disclose or do not Disclose Child Abuse in Investigative Interviews. Child Abuse & Neglect. 2012. 36: 12-20.
http://bodylanguageproject.com/articles/reading-nonverbal-behaviour-child-abuse-cases-encourage-children-divulge-information-truth-telling

Leanne ten Brinke; Dayna Stimson and Dana R. Carney. Some Evidence For Unconscious Lie Detection. Published online before print March 21, 2014, doi: 10.1177/0956797614524421.
http://bodylanguageproject.com/articles/to-spot-a-liar-trust-your-gut-not-your-eyes/

Leete, Esso. How I Perceive and Manage My Illness. Schizophrenia Bulletin. 1989. 15(2): 197-200.

Mason, G.J. Stereotypies and suffering. Behavioural Processes. 1991. 25(2): 103-115.

Mendez, Mario F. ; Mirea, Adrian. Adult head-banging and stereotypic movement disorders. Movement Disorders. 1998. 13(5): 825-828.

Newman, Sharlene ; Soylu, Firat. The impact of finger counting habits on arithmetic in adults and children. Psychological Research. 2014 78(4): 549-556.

Newton, Ashley M ; De Villiers, Jill G. Thinking while talking: adults fail nonverbal false-belief reasoning. Psychological science. 2007. 18(7): 574-9.

Pecenka, Nadine ; Keller, Peter E.. The role of temporal prediction abilities in interpersonal sensorimotor synchronization.(RESEARCH ARTICLE)(Report). Experimental Brain Research. 2011 211(3-4): 505(11).

Pederson, David R. Davidson, Park O. (editor). The soothing effect of rocking as determined by the direction and frequency of movement. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des Sciences du comportement. 1975. 7(3): 237-243.

Perkins, M. ; Wolkind, S. N. Asperger’s syndrome: who is being abused? Archives of Disease in Childhood. 1991. 66(6): 693(3)

Repp, Bruno ; Su, Yi-Huang. Sensorimotor synchronization: A review of recent research (2006–2012). Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 2013 20(3): 403-452.

Rothman, Naomi B. Steering Sheep: How Expressed Emotional Ambivalence Elicits Dominance in Interdependent Decision Making Contexts. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes. 2011. 116: 66-82.
http://bodylanguageproject.com/articles/ambivalent-facial-expression-form-dominance-study/

Shimooka, Yukiko ; Nakagawa, Naofumi. Functions of an unreported “rocking-embrace” gesture between female Japanese Macaques ( Macaca fuscata ) in Kinkazan Island, Japan. Primates. 2014. 55(2): 327-335.

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and Submissive Behavior. Psychological Assessment. 2011. 23(1): 262-276 DOI: 10.1037/a0021499
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Seli, Paul; Jonathan S. A. Carriere; David R. Thomson; James Allan Cheyne, Kaylena A. Ehgoetz Martens, and Daniel Smilek. Restless Mind, Restless Body Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. American Psychological Association. 2014. 40(3): 660-668. 0278-7393/14/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0035260
http://bodylanguageproject.com/articles/fidgeting-body-language-really-mean-fidget-bored-mentally-taxed/

Slepian, Michael L. ; Ambady, Nalini. Fluid Movement and Creativity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 2012. 141(4): 625-629.

Van Der Zee, Sophie; Ronald Poppe; Paul J. Taylor; and Ross Anderson. To Freeze or Not to Freeze A Motion-Capture Approach to Detecting Deceit.
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Wolff, Sula. Childhood autism: its diagnosis, nature, and treatment. Archives of Disease in Childhood. 1991. 66(6): 737(5).

*No Photo, Pensive displays, Self-motivating gestures, Stressful body language

Body Language of Forehead Rubbing

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Body Language of Forehead Rubbing

No picCue: Forehead Rubbing

Synonym(s): Rubbing The Forehead, Forehead Massage, Forehead Hold, Massaging The Forehead, Temple Rub, Hand To Temple, Rubbing The Temples, Massaging The Temple.

Description: Rubbing the forehead with the hands.

In One Sentence: Rubbing the forehead is a demonstration of an internal struggle as one works toward a solution to a problem.

How To Use it: Rubbing and massaging the head can help activate the mind to come up with solutions. However, even if this is not effective at producing thought, it can be used to show others that one is working to solve a problem. This will be read by others as being mindful and may buy a person some extra time in coming up with a viable solution.

Context: General.

Verbal Translation: “I’m in distress and I figure if I massage my head long enough that my brain will be able to come to some sort of conclusion or solution.”

Variant: Rubbing the temples has a similar meaning.

Cue In Action: a) While studying for the test, she put her head down on her hands and massaged her forehead. b) With only a few minutes to decide, he rubbed his forehead. c) The stress was palpable. He massaged his temples vigorously to try to pacify himself.

Meaning and/or Motivation: Rubbing the forehead is an evaluative body language gesture, but it also signals an internal struggle where slight to severe discomfort is being experienced.

The forehead is prone to sweating while under stress so the forehead rub is likely a way the body fights the extra stimulation it receives due to extra heat and blood flow.

Cue Cluster: Other motivating cues can appear in cluster. For example, someone might tap a pencil against the mouth or teeth, the feet, hands or fingers might tap or bounce as someone tries to reach a decision.

Body Language Category: Pensive displays, Self-motivating gestures, Stressful body language.

Resources:

Barroso, Felix ; Feld, Jason. Self-touching and attentional processes: The role of task difficulty, selection stage, and sex differences. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior. 1986. 10(1): 51-64.

Butzen, Nathan David ; Bissonnette, Victor ; Mcbrayer, Dan. Effects of modeling and topic stimulus on self-referent touching. Perceptual and motor skills. 2005. 101(2): 413-20.

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Bornstein, Marc H. ; Tamis-Lemonda, Catherine S. Maternal responsiveness and infant mental abilities: Specific predictive relations. Infant Behavior and Development. 1997. 20(3): 283-296.

Buckley, V., & Semple, S. (2012). Evidence that displacement activities facilitate behavioural transitions in ring-tailed lemurs. Behavioural Processes, 90, 433–435.

Bernal, Gilda Rios ; Wortham, Suec. How to Calm Children through Massage. Childhood Education. 1997. 74(1): 9-14.

Bouhuys, A.L. ; Jansen, C.J. ; van den Hoofdakker, R.H. Analysis of observed behaviors displayed by depressed patients during a clinical interview: relationships between behavioral factors and clinical concepts of activation. Journal of Affective Disorders. 1991. 21(2): 79-88.

Bouhuys, A.L. ; Beersma, Domien G.M. ; van den Hoofdakker, Rutger H. Observed behavior as a predictor of the response to sleep deprivation in depressed patients. Psychiatry Research. 1989. 28(1): 47-61.

Berridge CW,Mitton E, ClarkW, Roth RH. 1999. Engagement in a non-escape (displacement) behavior elicits a selective and lateralized suppression of frontal cortical dopaminergic utilization in stress. Synapse 32:187–197.

Bond, Michael H., and Hiroshi Komai (1976). “Targets of Gazing and Eye Contact During Interviews: Effects on Japanese Nonverbal Behavior.” In Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (Vol. 34), pp. 1276-84.

Blakeslee, Sandra (1995). “In Brain’s Early Growth, Timetable Maybe Crucial.” In New York Times (“Science Times,” August 29), pp. C1, C3.

Caplovitz Barrett, Karen. The origins of social emotions and self-regulation in toddlerhood: New evidence. Cognition & Emotion. 2005. 19(7): 953-979.

Castles, Duncan L. ; Whiten, Andrew ; Aureli, Filippo. Social anxiety, relationships and self-directed behaviour among wild female olive baboons. Animal Behaviour. 1999. 58(6): 1207-1215.

Charles v. Ford, Lies! Lies! Lies!: The Psychology of Deceit (Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, Inc., 1996), 200.

D’alessio, M. ; Zazzetta, A. Development of Self-Touching Behavior in Childhood. Perceptual and Motor Skills. 1986. 63(1): 243-253.

Dimond, Stuart ; Harries, Rashida. Face touching in monkeys, apes and man: Evolutionary origins and cerebral asymmetry. Neuropsychologia. 1984. 22(2): 227-233.

Ekman, Paul, and Wallace V. Friesen (1969). “Nonverbal Leakage and Clues to Deception.” In Psychiatry (Vol. 32), pp. 88-106.

Goldberg, Shelly ; Rosenthal, Robert. Self-touching behavior in the job interview: Antecedents and consequences. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior. 1986. 10(1): 65-80.

Goodall, Jane (1986). The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University).

Givens, David B. (1976). An Ethological Approach to the Study of Human Nonverbal Communication (University of Washington Ph.D. dissertation in Anthropology, Ann Arbor: University Microfilms).

Grand, Stanley (1977). “On Hand Movements During Speech: Studies of the Role of Self-Stimulation in Communication Under Conditions of Psychopathology, Sensory Deficit, and Bilingualism.” In Norbert Freedman and Stanley Grand, eds., Communicative Structures and Psychic Structures: A Psycholanalytic Interpretation of Communication (New York: Plenum Press), pp. 199-221.

Harrigan, Jinni A. Self-touching as an indicator of underlying affect and language processes. Social Science & Medicine. 1985. 20(11): 1161-1168.

Harrigan, Jinni A.; Karen S. Lucic; Denise Kay; Anne McLaney and Robert Rosenthal. Effect of Expresser Role and Type of Self-Touching on Observers’ Perceptions. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 1991. 21(7): 585-609.

Heaven, Laura ; Mcbrayer, Dan ; Prince, Bob. Role of sex in externally motivated self-touching gestures. Perceptual and motor skills. 2002. 95(1): 289-94.

Heaven, L ; Mcbrayer, D. External motivators of self-touching behavior. Perceptual and motor skills. 2000. 90(1): 338-42.

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Kirschbaum C, Pirke K-M, Hellhammer DH. 1993. The ‘Trier Social Stress Test’: a tool for investigating psychobiological stress responses in a laboratory setting. Neuropsychobiology 28: 76–81.

Moszkowski, Robin J. ; Stack, Dale M. ; Chiarella, Sabrina S. Infant touch with gaze and affective behaviors during mother–infant still-face interactions: Co-occurrence and functions of touch. Infant Behavior and Development. 2009. 32(4): 392-403.

Maestripieri D, Schino G, Aureli F, Troisi A. 1992. A modest proposal: displacement activities as an indicator of emotions in primates. Anim Behav 44:967–979.

Mohiyeddini, C., Bauer, S., & Semple, S. (2013a). Displacement behaviour is associated with reduced stress levels among men but not women. PLoS One, 8, e56355.

Mohiyeddini, C., Bauer, S., & Semple, S. (2013b). Public self-consciousness moderates the link between displacement behaviour and experience of stress in women. Stress, 16, 384–392.

Mohiyeddini, C., & Semple, S. (2013). Displacement behaviour regulates the experience of stress in men. Stress, 16, 163–171.

Morris, Desmond (1994). Bodytalk: The Meaning of Human Gestures (New York: Crown Publishers).

McGrew, W. C. (1972). “Aspects of Social Development in Nursery School Children with Emphasis on Introduction to the Group.” In N. G. Blurton Jones, ed., Ethological Studies of Child Behaviour (Cambridge: University Press), pp. 129-56.

Navarro, Joe. 2008. What Every BODY is Saying: An Ex-FBI Agent’s Guide to Speed-Reading People. William Morrow Paperbacks.

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Pecora, Giulia ; Addessi, Elsa ; Schino, Gabriele ; Bellagamba, Francesca. Do displacement activities help preschool children to inhibit a forbidden action? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 2014. 126: 80-90.

Pugh, George E. (1977). The Biological Origin of Human Values (New York: Basic Books).

Rosenfeld, Howard (1973). “Nonverbal Reciprocation of Approval: An Experimental Analysis.” In Argyle *, pp. 163-72.

Sommer, Robert (1969). Personal Space: The Behavioral Basis of Design (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall).

Schino G, Perretta G, Taglioni AM, Monaco V, Troisi A. 1996. Primate displacement activities as an ethopharmacological model of anxiety. Anxiety 2:186–191.

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Troisi A, Moles A (1999) Gender differences in depression: an ethological study
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von Hippel W, von Hippel C, Conway L, Preacher KJ, Schooler JW, et al. (2005) Coping with stereotype threat: denial as an impression management strategy. J Personal Soc Psychol 89: 22–35.

*No Photo, Adaptors, Auto contact or self touching, Preening body language, Self-motivating gestures, Stroking body language

Body Language of The Face Wash

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Body Language of The Face Wash

No picCue: Face Wash (The)

Synonym(s): Face Rub, Face Cleans, Rubbing The Face, Washing The Face With The Hands, Hands Rubbing The Face.

Description: The palms cup and rub the face as if washing it.

In One Sentence: The face wash signals the desire for a fresh start.

How To Use it: Use the face wash when you are tired and need to self-sooth or refresh your perspective. Research has shown that we often perform various ritualized gestures in order to purify ourselves and our minds. “Washing the face” with bare hands is likely rooted in our psyche as a way to refresh the body and mind. When the face is massaged it can help release positive hormones helping to reduce stress and discomfort.

Context: General.

Verbal Translation: a) “I’m feeling a little bit off so it’s time to scrub my face and clean up for a fresh start.” b) “Ahhhhh, so much frustration, time for a refresh.” c) “I’m tired and rubbing my face produces self soothing.”

Variant: See Face Palm and Double Face Palm.

Cue In Action: After writing many nonverbal dictionary cues, he rubbed his face with his palms as a way to build the strength to continue.

Meaning and/or Motivation: The face wash is a way to reenergize the body and prepare for action or conversely as the body nears giving up due to low energy. It is a pacifying and self-touching and self-grooming gesture – a sort of self-massage to release positive hormones. The gesture is a throwback to washing the face in the morning or reinvigorating it with cold water from a flowing stream.

Cue Cluster: The Face wash is usually accompanied by a vocal grunt, an “oh-boy,” or “ugh” showing its primitive roots. Commonly, a person will have drooping tired eyes, might be yawning, drifting off and glazing over.

Body Language Category: Adaptors, Auto contact or self touching, Stroking body language, Preening, Self-motivating gestures.

Resources:

Brown, B. R. (1970). Face-saving following experimentally induced embarrassment. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 6, 255–271.

Bond, Michael H., and Hiroshi Komai (1976). “Targets of Gazing and Eye Contact During Interviews: Effects on Japanese Nonverbal Behavior.” In Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (Vol. 34), pp. 1276-84.

Blakeslee, Sandra (1995). “In Brain’s Early Growth, Timetable Maybe Crucial.” In New York Times (“Science Times,” August 29), pp. C1, C3.

Chen-Bo Zhong and Katie Liljenquist. Washing Away Your Sins: Threatened Morality And Physical Cleansing. Science. 2006; 313, 1451.
http://bodylanguageproject.com/articles/hand-washing-as-indication-of-moral-threat/

Dong, Ping ; Huang, Xun (Irene) ; Wyer, Robert S. The Illusion of Saving Face
Psychological Science. 2013. 24(10): pp.2005-2012.

Ekman, Paul, and Wallace V. Friesen (1969). “Nonverbal Leakage and Clues to Deception.” In Psychiatry (Vol. 32), pp. 88-106.

Florack, Arnd; Janet Kleber; Romy Busch and David Stöhr. Detaching the ties of ownership: the effects of hand washing on the exchange of endowed products. Journal of Consumer Psychology 24, 2 (2014) 284–289
http://bodylanguageproject.com/articles/washing-the-hands-for-new-beginning-ownership-and-the-endowment-effect/

Goodall, Jane (1986). The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University).

Givens, David B. (1976). An Ethological Approach to the Study of Human Nonverbal Communication (University of Washington Ph.D. dissertation in Anthropology, Ann Arbor: University Microfilms).

Grand, Stanley (1977). “On Hand Movements During Speech: Studies of the Role of Self-Stimulation in Communication Under Conditions of Psychopathology, Sensory Deficit, and Bilingualism.” In Norbert Freedman and Stanley Grand, eds., Communicative Structures and Psychic Structures: A Psycholanalytic Interpretation of Communication (New York: Plenum Press), pp. 199-221.

Keltner, D., & Buswell, B. N. (1997). Embarrassment: Its distinct form and appeasement functions. Psychological Bulletin. 122: 250–270.

Kenner, Andrew N. (1993). “A Cross-Cultural Study of Body-Focused Hand Movement.” In Journal of Nonverbal Behavior (Vol. 17, No. 4, Winter), pp. 263-79.

Lee, S. W. S., & Schwarz, N. (2010). Dirty hands and dirty mouths: Embodiment of the moral-purity metaphor is specific to the motor modality involved in moral transgression.
Psychological Science, 21, 1423–1425.
Schnall, S., Benton, J., & Harvey, S. (2008). With a clean conscience: Cleanliness reduces the severity of moral judgments. Psychological Science, 19, 1219–1222.

Morris, Desmond (1994). Bodytalk: The Meaning of Human Gestures (New York: Crown Publishers).

McGrew, W. C. (1972). “Aspects of Social Development in Nursery School Children with Emphasis on Introduction to the Group.” In N. G. Blurton Jones, ed., Ethological Studies of Child Behaviour (Cambridge: University Press), pp. 129-56.

Pugh, George E. (1977). The Biological Origin of Human Values (New York: Basic Books).

Rosenfeld, Howard (1973). “Nonverbal Reciprocation of Approval: An Experimental Analysis.” In Argyle *, pp. 163-72.

Sommer, Robert (1969). Personal Space: The Behavioral Basis of Design (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall).

Xu, A. J., Zwick, R., & Schwarz, N. (2012). Washing away your (good or bad) luck: Physical cleansing affects risk-taking behavior. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 141, 26–30.

Zhong, C. B., & Liljenquist, K. (2006). Washing away your sins: Threatened morality and physical cleansing. Science, 313, 1451–1452.

Zhong, C. B., Strejcek, B., & Sivanathan, N. (2010). A clean self can render harsh moral judgment. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 859–862.